This research explores the unique and universal aspects of Disaster Victim Rituals in Joseon Dynasty Korea. Disaster such as wars, famines, and epidemics not only disrupt daily life but also result in massive casualties, posing significant challenges ...
This research explores the unique and universal aspects of Disaster Victim Rituals in Joseon Dynasty Korea. Disaster such as wars, famines, and epidemics not only disrupt daily life but also result in massive casualties, posing significant challenges for survivors. Disaster Victim Rituals emerged as a religious and cultural response to these mass fatalities, primarily taking the forms of yeo-je(厲祭) and suryukjae(水陸齋).
To investigate these rituals, a multifaceted approach is employed, beginning with an examination of historical documents. While revealing the rituals' characteristics and historical specificity, this method also exposes discrepancies between normative discourse and actual practice. Moreover, it addresses the challenge of interpreting diverse perspectives found in historical records, particularly in prayer texts such as je-mun(祭文), chuk-mun(祝文), and so-mun(疏文). To achieve a comprehensive understanding, the research incorporates insights from human behavioral ecology, adopting an interdisciplinary methodology. This approach avoids normative judgments about the rituals' meanings, instead focusing on the distribution and frequency of coexisting interpretations and their cultural conditions. By shifting the focus from normative to cultural meanings, the study offers a nuanced view of how ritual significance was constructed and perceived in Joseon society, providing valuable insights into the complex cultural landscape surrounding these rituals and illuminating the broader sociocultural context of disaster response in historical Korea.
Central to Disaster Victim Rituals are the issues of unburied corpses and the perceived resentment of the deceased. These rituals were driven by two interconnected factors: a normative duty to properly handle the remains, and a belief that appeasing the spirits of the dead could prevent further calamities. The trauma of encountering abandoned bodies and the inferred emotions of the dead promoted ritual responses. In disaster situations, where proper burial was often impossible and causes remained unclear, these two aspects naturally converged. Consequently, the rituals aimed to both properly handle remains and appease the spirits of the deceased, reflecting a belief that unresolved resentment could trigger further calamities.
Disaster Victim Rituals in Joseon Dynasty evolved in response to challenges in proper corpse management. Early Joseon saw a shift towards Neo-Confucian burial practices, but traditional methods like wind burial and cremation persisted. Initially, state involvement in the handling of remains and associated rituals was limited to deaths of national merit. However, as Joseon faced recurring disasters, the state expanded its role to manage the remains of all disaster victims. This often led to mass burials, sometimes resulting in improper treatment of bodies and disruption of family rituals. Despite these issues, state involvement in these rituals continued to grow. The king’s direct participation invoked a familiar logic, treating victims as his own children and binding the state as a community of shared fate. This evolution reflects the changing state-people relationship and interplay between tradition, new ideologies, and practical challenges in disaster responses.
The issue of resentment among disaster victims primarily surfaced when new calamities occurred. This resentment, attributed to improper handling of remains and lack of rituals, was believed to cause epidemics and droughts. Rituals addressing this resentment were often held at three suburban altars near Seoul, which served as both relief centers and burial grounds. The resentment of war victims, particularly from the Japanese and Manchu invasion, was also invoked. Despite widespread war devastation, twelve battlefields were ritualized as official ritual sites, chosen for their demonstration of loyalty to the king, the tragic nature of deaths, and perceived spiritual efficacy.
Disaster Victim Rituals, while common across many cultures and diverse in form due to local ecological environments, likely stem from universal human psychological mechanisms. Two key mechanisms are the Behavioral Immune System(BIS) and Theory of Mind(ToM). The BIS identifies potential pathogen threats, triggering disgust responses that lead to avoidance behaviors. Disasters often create situations where decaying bodies cannot be properly handled, increasing anxiety. Disaster Victim Rituals may serve as a ritual response to this anxiety. ToM allows for the inference of others’ mental states, including intentions and desires. The concept of resentment among disaster victims can be seen as a product of ToM.
While the motivations and reasoning behind Disaster Victim Rituals may be universal, their practices and interpretations vary widely. The changes in ritual practices are largely influenced by the ecological conditions experienced by individuals performing the rituals. The king, for instance, played a pivotal role. The state’s active involvement in these rituals was closely tied to the unique social position of Joseon kings. Highly sensitive to reputation management and interpreting the public sentiment, the king actively engaged in Disaster Victim Rituals as an extension of these concerns. In practice, however, most rituals were carried out by officials and local governor. These individuals adapted central ritual manuals to fit their specific social contexts. Ultimately, the practical aspects of Disaster Victim Rituals were shaped by the sociocultural conditions experienced by the individual actors involved in their performance.
Disaster Victim Rituals in Joseon generated diverse interpretations, evident in prayer texts. Interpretations of war victim rituals often balanced resentment and loyalty, typically viewing these rites as resolving the resentment of loyal soldiers who died unjustly. In contrast, rituals for famine and epidemic victims navigated between addressing the deceased’s resentment and acknowledging royal responsibility, with balanced interpretations gaining cultural prominence. Factors like ritual space influenced interpretations; for instance, mountain-based epidemic rituals were often associated with mountain deities. The state’s attitude, especially the king’s, impacted ritual transmission. Minimal royal control over ritual norms allowed for flexibility, enabling rituals to adapt to various situations and ensuring their continuity.
Disaster Victim Rituals in Joseon offer important insights into the semantic processes of rituals. When studying rituals as religious culture in a specific time and place, it’s crucial to examine the cultural influence of coexisting meanings rather than seeking a single, inherent meaning. The meaning of ritual is not fixed but constantly reconstructed by participants and observers. Interpretations vary depending on individuals and their environmental contexts. These diverse interpretations carry different weights of influence based on sociocultural environments, shaping the cultural meanings of rituals in specific times and places. Therefore, rituals should be understood not merely as a series of prescribed actions, but as complex phenomena where participants’ intentions, conditions, and various interpretations coexist.
The issue of disaster victims is a universal human experience, not limited to any specific era or culture. Understanding and appropriately responding to this issue remains a crucial task in modern society. While this research examined Disaster Victim Rituals in Joseon Korea, it provides historical insights for a deeper understanding of contemporary disaster response and commemoration culture. Furthermore, it serves as a starting point for developing improved research methodologies in this field, bridging historical practices with current challenges in disaster management and memorial practices.