유아의 실행기능 및 부모중재가 유아의 스마트폰 중독에 미치는 영향

박라진 울산대학교 교육대학원 2016 국내석사

This research aims to understand whether there is any correlation between young children's smartphone addiction and their executive function and parental mediation and, if so, how young children's executive function and parental mediation influence on their smart phone addiction. As test instruments, BRIEF was employed to inspect children's executive function. Media Mediation Scale and S-index were used for parental and smartphone addiction diagnosis respectively. The data was collected through questionnaires answered by 339 parents and 48 teachers of 5 year-old children attending 8 children education institutions in Daegu, Kyungbuk, Ulsan, Busan and Jeollanamdo. The data was analyzed, via SPSS(Statistical Package for Social Science) Ver 22.0 and the missing data was processed, via EM(Expectation Maximization) algorithm utilizing Method of Maximum Likelihood. The research questions are as follows. 1) How is the children and their mothers smartphone use, and how are the executive function, parental mediation, and smartphone addiction based on children's gender? 2) What is the relationship between children's executive function and smartphone addiction, and the relationship between parental mediation and their smartphone addiction? 3) What is the influence of executive function and parental mediation on children's smartphone addiction? The findings are as follows. 1) In terms of the children and their mothers smartphone use, most of the children(36.3%) use smartphones for less than 30 minutes a day on average and most children(41.6%) use smartphones for 1~2 days a week. Many children use smartphones with their mothers(30.1%), mostly to watch videos(60.8%). Most mothers(57.5%) use smartphones for 60~180 minutes, mainly to search various kinds of information(59.3%). 2) In terms of executive function, parental mediation and smartphone use based on their gender, the executive function and smartphone addiction did not show any statistically significant differences. In contrast, the parental mediation based on children's gender showed some significant differences. The score of neglect among sub factors for girls are higher than boys’. 3) In the relationship between children's executive function and smartphone addiction, and the relationship between parental mediation and smartphone addiction all showed significant correlation. All the factors in function and addiction turned out significantly correlated — the lower children's executive function, the higher the addiction level. In addition, most of the variables in mediation and addiction have significant correlation — as their parent’s positive and negative mediation is low, and their parent’s neglect is high, the addiction level becomes higher. 4) The influence of children's executive function and parental mediation on their smartphone addiction was inspected. Additionally, children's smartphone using time was applied as a control variable to identify the pure influence of their executive function and parental mediation on smartphone use. The result showed that the positive mediation and neglect among the sub factors of parental mediation have a significant influence on children's smartphone addiction, which tells that as parents' positive mediation is low and neglect is high, children's smartphone addiction level gets higher. This study found out all factors of children's executive function and their smartphone addiction were significantly correlated, and also showed the significant corelation among most of the variables of parental mediation and children's smartphone addiction. In addition, this study revealed that the positive mediation and the neglect among sub factors of parental mediation have a significant influence on children's smartphone addiction. Moreover, this research is more meaningful and different from the existing ones in that children's smartphone using time was applied as a control variable to find out the pure influence of the executive function and the parental mediation on their smartphone addiction. Keywords : Executive Function, Parental Mediation, smartphone addiction 본 연구는 유아의 실행기능 및 부모중재가 유아의 스마트폰 중독과 상관관계가 있는지, 있다면 유아의 실행기능 및 부모중재가 유아의 스마트폰 중독에 어떠한 영향을 미치는지 알아보기 위한 목적으로 시도되었다. 이를 위하여 BRIEF로 유아의 실행기능을 조사하였고, 미디어중재 측정도구로 부모중재를 측정하였다. 스마트폰 중독 진단척도(S-척도)로 유아의 스마트폰 중독을 알아보았다. 연구대상은 대구ㆍ경북, 울산, 부산, 전라남도의 8개 유아교육기관에 재원중인 만 5세 자녀를 둔 부모님 339명과 만 5세 담임교사 48명에게 질문지를 배부하였다. 수집된 자료는 SPSS(Statistical Package for Social Science) Ver 22.0 통계패키지 프로그램을 사용하여 전산통계 처리하였으며, 결측치는 최대우도 추정법을 활용한 EM(Expectation Maximization)알고리즘으로 처리하였다. 본 연구의 연구문제는 다음과 같다. 연구문제 1) 유아와 어머니의 스마트폰 이용관련 특성 및 유아의 성에 따른 실행기능, 부모중재, 스마트폰 중독은 어떠한가? 연구문제 2) 유아의 실행기능과 스마트폰 중독 간의 관계 및 부모중재와 유아의 스마트폰 중독 간의 관계는 어떠한가? 연구문제 3) 유아의 스마트폰 중독에 미치는 실행기능과 부모중재의 영향은 어떠한가? 본 연구에서 산출된 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 유아와 어머니의 스마트폰 이용관련 특성을 조사한 결과, 유아의 스마트폰 하루 평균 사용시간은 30분미만이 36.3%로 가장 많았으며, 주당 사용 일수는 1-2일이 41.6%로 가장 높은 비율을 차지했다. 스마트 폰은 주로 어머니와 함께 사용한다고 응답했으며(30.1%), 주사용 목적으로는 동영상 시청이 60.8%로 응답자의 절반 이상이 답했다. 어머니의 스마트폰 하루 평균 사용 시간은 60분 이상-180분미만이 57.5%로 가장 많았으며, 스마트폰으로 자주 사용하는 기능은 각종정보검색이 59.3%로 가장 높은 비율을 차지하였다. 둘째, 유아의 성에 따른 실행기능, 부모중재, 스마트폰 중독을 알아본 결과, 유아의 성에 따른 실행기능과 스마트폰 중독은 통계적으로 유의미한 차이를 보이지 않았다. 반면, 유아의 성에 따른 부모중재는 유의미한 차이를 보였다. 유아의 성에 따른 부모중재의 경우, 하위요인 중 방임의 점수가 남아보다 여아가 통계적으로 유의미하게 높은 것을 알 수 있었다. 셋째, 유아의 실행기능과 스마트폰 중독 간의 관계 및 부모중재와 유아의 스마트폰 중독 간의 관계를 알아본 결과, 모두 유의미한 상관관계가 나타났다. 유아의 실행기능과 스마트폰 중독 전체의 모든 요인에서 유의미한 상관관계가 나타났으며, 이는 유아의 실행기능이 낮을수록 스마트폰 중독이 높아지는 것을 알 수 있었다. 또한, 부모중재와 유아의 스마트폰 중독 간의 관계에서도 대부분의 변인이 유의미한 상관관계를 가지는 것으로 나타났다. 이는 부모의 긍정적 중재와 부정적 중재가 낮고, 방임이 높을수록 유아의 스마트폰 중독이 높아지는 것을 알 수 있었다. 넷째, 유아의 스마트폰 중독에 미치는 실행기능과 부모중재의 영향을 알아보았다. 또한, 유아의 실행기능과 부모중재가 스마트폰에 미치는 순수한 영향을 보기 위하여 통제변수로 유아의 스마트폰 사용시간을 사용하였다. 그 결과, 부모중재의 하위요인 중 긍정적 중재와 방임이 유아의 스마트폰 중독에 유의미한 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 이는 부모의 긍정적 중재가 낮고, 방임이 높을수록 유아의 스마트폰 중독이 높아지는 것을 알 수 있다. 본 연구에서는 유아의 실행기능과 스마트폰 중독 전체의 모든 요인에서 유의미한 상관이 있음을 밝혔다는 점과, 부모중재와 유아의 스마트폰 중독 전체에서도 대부분의 변인이 유의미한 상관이 있음을 밝혔다. 또한, 부모중재의 하위요인 중 긍정적 중재와 방임이 유아의 스마트폰 중독에 유의미한 영향을 미치는 요인임을 밝혔다. 그리고 기존의 연구들과 달리 유아의 스마트폰 중독에 미치는 실행기능과 부모중재의 순수한 영향을 알아보기 위하여 통제변수로 유아의 스마트폰 사용시간을 사용한 점에서 의의가 있다. 주요어 : 실행기능, 부모중재, 스마트폰 중독

작업기억 집행기능에 관여하는 뇌 영역과 연결망의 메타분석 및 교육적 시사점

마서민 전북대학교 일반대학원 2021 국내박사

Working memory underpins cognitive development, learning and education. Among the components of working memory, the central executive system is considered as a universal attentional control system, endowed with a wide range of higher cognitive functions. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the brain regions and networks correlated to executive functions in working memory through meta-analysis of fMRI neuroimaging studies, and to derive educational implications. In order to collect fMRI data on executive functions of working memory, electronic journals were used to search for literature reporting Talairach or MNI standard coordinates of healthy subjects from the year of 2000 to 2020. Finally, 104 studies and 132 experiments were included. The coordinate-based meta-analysis of Activation Likelihood Estimation(ALE) was used to detect the significant activation regions related to the executive functions and processing contents of working memory. MACM(Meta-Analytic Connectivity Modeling) analysis was also performed to measure functional connectivity in activated regions related to the overall executive function of working memory. Data analysis by using GingerALE 3.0.2, and the activated brain regions and connectivity networks were visualized by Mango 4.0.1 and BrainNet Viewer 1.7. The results are summarized as follows. First, the brain regions related to the overall executive functions of working memory showed a distribution pattern of fronto-parietal networks. They were mainly concentrated in the left superior frontal gyrus(BA 6), the left inferior parietal lobule(BA 40), the right superior parietal lobule(BA 7), the right precuneus(BA7), and the bilateral insula(BA 13). Second, large areas of activation in the frontal and parietal lobes were confirmed by analysis of three executive function types (updating, inhibition, and shifting). This suggests that executive function is based on a network of front and post brain regions, rather than being supported only by the frontal lobes. In addition to activating the left inferior parietal lobule (BA 40), the three executive function types also have dependent brain regions. This indicates that the brain activity of executive function has the characteristics of unity and diversity. Third, the activation in both frontal and parietal regions were found according to the analysis of the three processing content types of working memory (language, object and spatial). Unlike working memory maintenance, content selection does not involve hemispheric separation during the execution of working memory. Fourth, the use of different types of processing content for each executive function showed different patterns of brain activity, but they all activated the prefrontal cortex together. The prefrontal cortex provides a top-down signal in the executive function of working memory to control and regulate the activity in other brain regions, including the parietal lobe, the basal nerve, and the limbic system. Fifth, the six important nodes reported in the overall executive function of working memory, namely the left superior frontal gyrus, the left inferior parietal lobule, the right superior parietal lobule, the right precuneus, the left and right insula, are analyzed for collaborative connectivity network. Beyond the restriction of working memory tasks, the six nodes were found to be functionally connected to the middle temporal gyrus, fusiform gyrus, and basal ganglia, including thalamus, caudate nucleus, and lentiform nucleus. Therefore, in the process of working memory exerting related cognitive functions, it also needs the participation of the perceptual system and the motor system. Based on the results of the study, some suggestions are put forward to help students develop working memory ability and executive function ability. In addition, in the longer term, teachers have the obligation and responsibility to understand the internal mechanism of learning according to the law of brain development, so as to find appropriate teaching methods.

지방의회 의정활동의 강화 방안 : 정읍시의회를 중심으로

이남희 전북대학교 행정대학원 2022 국내석사

Local councils are decision-making bodies and supreme policy-making bodies and have been checking and monitoring the executive body and carrying out parliamentary activities reflecting the intentions of the residents, but positive and negative views are appearing. That is, with regard to the overall evaluation of local councils, positive views that local councils are appropriately carrying out the function to check the executive body and various other views such as those that point out insufficient institutional conditions and environment of local councils, and the lack of qualifications and professionalism of local councils coexist. Studies on the parliamentary activities of local councils are badly needed discussions for the efficient operation of local councils, and many studies have been conducted on regional councils thus far. On the other hand, despite that the Jeongeup City Council in Jeollabuk-do has been playing important roles and functions in local administration as a basic council, no study has systematically analyzed the administrative functions of the Jeongeup City Council in the academic dimension. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to set the major analysis phases as the organization and operation, policy-making function, and executive body check function of local councils based on the theoretical discussion on local councils’ parliamentary activities to in-depth analyze the parliamentary activities of the Jeongeup City Council from the 1st to the 8th term thereby deriving problems and presenting measures to strengthen the parliamentary activities of local councils through the foregoing. This study uses a qualitative study method, and adopts the qualitative study method as a method of a case study centering on Jeongeup City Council. Concretely, to conduct the study, a literature research method, which is analyzing the parliamentary activities referring to the records related to parliamentary activities such as previous study papers, government publications, website data, parliamentary meeting minutes, and parliamentary research data, was mainly used, and it was intended to supplement the contents through interviews in order to secure logical grounds for the related contents. For content composition, this study systematically analyzed the parliamentary activities according to the demographic factors of local councilors. As for the main analysis phases, the analysis was conducted through three phases: organization and operation, policy-making functions, and executive body check function. Concretely, organization and operation were examined through personal status such as age, academic background, place of birth, occupation, etc., and parliament component factors, and with regard to the policy-making functions, factors such as draft ordinances and rules, processing of agreement and approval, processing of proposals and resolutions, and research groups. The executive body check function was analyzed with administrative audits and investigations, municipal administrative questions, and committee system and activities. The results of analysis of the parliamentary activities of Jeongeup City Council from the 1st to 8th generations are as follows. First, in terms of organization and operation, the Jeongeup City Council is composed of 17 councilors, and the secretariat has 23 employees. Sessions include plenary sessions, regular sessions, and extraordinary meetings. With regard to the distribution of councilors by education level, most of the 8th term councilors a high level of education except for one high school graduate, and as for their distribution by age, those aged at least 40 years and especially female councilors accounted for a low ratios with three councilors (18%). In addition, with regard to the distribution status by occupation, among the entire 17 councilors, 5 were agricultural workers, 1 were self-employed, and 11 were politicians and local councilors. With regard to the policy-making functions, although the number of petitions received by the Jeongeup City Council was not large at 85 (1st to 8th generations), it was found that all petitions were handled through management, from transfer to the executive branch to result reporting and based on the results as such, it can be seen that by the Jeongeup City Council are properly carrying out the resident representing function. The petitions of the Jeongeup City Council have been transferred to the executive branch and processed, and the status of was shown to be at an insignificant level as two cases were received in the 8th term. With regard to the number of bills of the Jeongeup City Council, a total of 3,086 bills were proposed and 2,920 were approved, and the number of rejected bills was 166, showing a high rate of approval of 94.6%. In addition, with regard to the rate of approval of the ordinances and rules, a total of 1,925 cases were proposed and 1,802 cases were approved so that the number of rejected cases was 117, indicating a high approval rate of 92.86%. The numbers of motions of ordinances and rules of the Jeongeup City Council were shown to be 481 (25.54%) proposed by the council and 1,402 (74.45%) proposed by the executive body out of a total of 1,883 motions, indicating that the proportion of motions proposed by the executive body was relatively high. With regard to the status of processing of proposals and resolutions, a total of 242 cases were proposed and 7 cases were rejected. In particular, with regard to the Jeongeup City Council councilor research groups, a total of four research groups were established starting with the 8th Local Autonomy Research Group followed by the History and Culture Research Group, the Ordinance Legislative Policy Research Group, and the Economic Environment Policy Research Group and diverse subjects and contents are studied by councilor research groups. In addition, the Jeongeup City Council is characterized by the introduction of the policy support officer system by arranging at least one policy support officer equipped with experience in systematic operation and expertise of local councils per councilor to assist the councilors in their smooth parliamentary activities. In terms of the executive body check activities, administrative affairs investigations are conducted when exceptional cases occur, and a special committee is organized every year to conduct administrative affairs investigations into projects that are closely related to citizens. As for the status of municipal administrative questions, a total of 1,395 questions were raised, of which 466 were in the general administration area and 247 were in the city construction area, showing characteristic that the interests of councilors are concentrated on the general administration and city construction fields. With regard to the activities of the standing committees of the Jeongeup City Council, 19 cases were shown for the first term showing somewhat atrophied records, but active committee activities are shown in the 2nd through 8th generations. Based on the results of the analysis as such, measures to strengthening the parliamentary activities of local councils was presented as follows. A total of three alternatives were presented: first, enhancing the efficiency of the organization and operation of local councils, second, strengthening the professionalism of parliamentary activities, and third, strengthening the executive body check functions. First, for enhancing the efficiency of the organization and operation of local councils, the strengthening of the council’s right of enactment of ordinances, the strengthening of cooperation between the council, the executive body, the citizens, the establishment of cooperative relationships between the council and the heads of the groups, activation, and specialization of the activities of the council committees were presented. It was suggested that to strengthen the professionalism of parliamentary activities, the operation of e the policy support system, the activities of local councilors’ workshops, and the council's own research groups should be activated. In particular, the introduction of the policy support officer system as a measure to strengthen the ability and expertise of local councilors, which will be very helpful in supporting the policies of local councilors seems to greatly contribute to the securing of the professionalism of the parliamentary activities of local councils. In addition, in order for local councilors to cultivate expertise and skills by carrying out the parliamentary activities, it is necessary to enhance useful and professional knowledge of local councilors by smoothly promoting the workshop activities of local councilors. In order to strengthen the executive branch check function, local councilors should actively develop activities to point out administrative errors through administrative audits and investigations, municipal administrative questions, and site visits and to demand the executive body to reflect citizens’ opinions on current pending issues. In addition, to make budget deliberation substantive and efficient, sufficient data should be collected for analysis and deliberation with a sufficient period in advance. 지방의회는 의결기관이자 최고정책결정기관으로 집행기관을 견제・감시하고 주민의 의사를 반영한 의정활동을 수행해 오고 있는데, 긍정과 부정의 시각이 나타나고 있다. 즉, 지방의회에 대한 전반적인 평가는 집행부의 견제기능을 적절하게 수행하고 있다는 긍정적 시각과 지방의회의 제도적 여건과 환경의 미비, 지방의원의 자질과 전문성 부족 등 다양한 시각이 공존하고 있다. 지방의회 의정활동에 대한 연구는 지방의회의 효율적 운영을 위해 매우 필요한 논의이며, 지금까지 광역 지방의회를 대상으로 한 연구들이 많이 연구되고 있다. 반면, 전라북도 정읍시의회는 기초의회로서 지방행정에서 중요한 역할과 기능을 수행하고 있음에도 불구하고 정읍시의회의 의정활동 기능에 대해서 학술적 차원에서 체계적으로 분석한 연구는 전무한 실정이다. 이에 따라 이 연구는 지방의회 의정활동에 대한 이론적 논의를 토대로 주요 분석 국면을 조직과 운영, 정책결정 기능, 집행기관 견제기능으로 설정하여 정읍시의회 제1대~제8대까지의 의정활동을 심층적으로 분석하여 문제점을 도출하고, 이를 통해 지방의회 의정활동 강화방안을 제시하는 것에 연구목적을 두었다. 이 연구는 질적 연구 방법을 사용하고 있으며, 질적 연구의 방법을 정읍시의회를 중심으로 사례 연구 방법을 채택하고 있다. 구체적으로 연구 수행을 위해 선행연구 논문, 정부간행물, 홈페이지 자료, 의회 회의록, 의회 연구자료 등 의회 활동 관련 기록물들을 참고하여 분석하는 문헌 연구 방법을 중심으로 사용하였고, 관련 내용에 대한 논리적 근거를 확보하기 위해 인터뷰를 통해 내용을 보완하고자 하였다. 이 연구는 내용적 구성을 위해 지방의원들의 인구 통계적 요인에 따라 의정활동을 체계적으로 분석하였다. 주요 분석국면으로는 조직 및 운영, 정책결정기능, 집행기관 견제기능 3가지 국면을 통해 분석을 수행하였다. 구체적으로 조직 및 운영은 연령·학력·출생지·직업 등 인적 현황과 의회 구성 요인을 통해 살펴보았고, 정책결정기능은 조례규칙안, 동의 및 승인 처리, 건의 및 결의안 처리, 연구단체 등의 요인을 중심으로 살펴보았다. 집행기관 견제기능은 행정사무감사 및 조사, 시정질문, 위원회 제도 및 활동 등으로 분석을 수행하였다. 정읍시의회 제1대~제8대까지의 의정활동을 분석한 결과는 다음과 같다. 먼저 조직과 운영 측면에서 보면 정읍시 의회는 17명으로 구성되어 있으며, 사무국은 23명의 직원을 두고 있다. 회기는 본의회, 정례회, 임시회 등이 운영되고 있다. 학력별 분포를 보면 8대의 경우 고졸 1명을 제외하면 대부분 고학력을 지닌 것으로 나타났고, 연령별 분포를 보면 40세 이상, 특히 여성 의원이 3명(18%)으로 낮은 비율을 차지하고 있었다. 또한 직업별 분포현황을 살펴보면, 전체의원 17명 중에서 농축업 종사자가 5명, 자영업이 1명, 정치인 및 지방의원이 11명으로 나타났다. 정책결정 기능을 보면 정읍시의회의 진정서 접수 건수는 85건(초대 ~ 8대)으로 많지 않으나, 집행부에 이첩하여 결과 보고에 이르기까지 관리를 통해 모두 처리한 것으로 나타났고, 이러한 결과로 주민대표기능을 제대로 수행하고 있다고 볼 수 있다. 정읍시의회의 청원은 전적으로 집행부에 이송되어 처리되고 있고, 처리현황은 제8대에 이르러 2건이 접수되어 미미한 수준으로 나타났다. 정읍시의회의 의안 수를 살펴보면 전체 3,086건을 발의해서 2,920건이 가결되었으며, 부결된 건수는 166건으로 94.6%의 높은 가결 비율을 보여주고 있다. 또한 조례 규칙 가결 비율을 살펴보면 전체 1,925건을 발의해서 1,802건이 가결되었으며, 부결된 건수는 117건으로 92.86%의 높은 가결 비율을 보이고 있다. 정읍시의회 조례와 규칙의 발의 비율은 전체안건 1,883건 중 의회발의 481건(25.54%), 집행기관 발의 1,402건(74.45%)으로 나타나 집행부의 발의 비율이 비교적 높게 나타났다. 건의·결의안 처리현황을 살펴보면, 총 242건을 발의해 부결된 건수는 7건으로 나타나고 있다. 특히 정읍시의회 의원연구 단체는 제8대 지방자치연구회를 시작으로 역사문화연구회, 조례입법정책연구회, 경제환경정책연구회 등 총 4개 연구단체 방식이 정착되어 다양한 주제와 내용들이 의원연구단체에서 연구되고 있는 것이 특징이다. 그리고 의원정수에 적어도 1명의 지방의회 체계적인 운영과 전문성을 갖춘 정책지원관이 배치되어 정책지원관제도를 도입하여 의원들의 원활한 의정활동을 보좌하도록하고 있는 점이 특징으로 나타났다. 집행기관 견제기능활동을 보면, 행정사무조사는 예외적인 일이 발생하면 실시하는데 매년 특별위원회를 구성해 시민과 밀접한 관계가 있는 사업에 대하여 연 1회 실시해 오고 있다. 시정질문 현황을 보면 총 1,395건인데, 이중 일반 행정분야 466건, 건설도시분야 247건으로 의원들의 관심분야가 일반행정과 건설도시 분야에 집중되는 특징을 나타내고 있다. 정읍시의회의 상임위원회별 활동을 보면 초대의 경우 19건으로 다소 위축된 실적을 보이고 있으나, 제2대부터 제8대에 이르기까지 활발하게 위원회 활동을 보이고 있었다. 이러한 분석결과를 토대로 지방의회 의정활동 강화 방안은 다음과 같이 제시하였다. 첫째, 지방의회 조직 및 운영의 효율성 강화, 둘째 의정활동 전문성 강화, 셋째 집행부 견제기능 강화 총 3가지로 대안을 제시하였다. 우선 지방의회 조직 및 운영의 효율성 강화에는 의회의 조례제정권 강화, 의회·집행기관·시민 간 협력 강화, 의회와 단체장 간 협력적 관계 구축, 의회 위원회 활동 활성화 및 전문화를 제시하였다. 의정활동 전문성 강화를 위해 정책지원 제도운영 활성화, 지방의회의원 연찬회 활동 강화, 의회 자체 연구모임 활성화가 필요함을 제시하였다. 특히 지방의회 지방의원의 능력과 전문성을 강화하기 위한 대책 방안으로 정책지원관제도를 도입하여 의원정책지원에 많은 도움이 되어 지방의회의 의정활동 전문성 확보에 크게 기여할 것으로 보인다. 그리고 지방의원들의 의정활동을 수행함으로써 전문지식 및 기술을 함양하기 위해서는 지방의원의 연찬 활동을 원활하게 추진함으로써 지방의원들에게 유용하고 전문적인 지식을 제고 할 필요가 있다. 집행부 견제기능을 강화를 위해 지방의원들은 행정 사무감사 및 조사, 시정질의, 현장 방문 등을 통해 행정의 잘못된 사항을 지적하고 당면한 현안 사항에 대해 시민들의 의견을 반영토록 집행기관 측에 요구하는 활동을 적극적으로 전개해 나가야 한다. 그리고 예산심의 내실화 및 효율화를 위하여 사전에 충분한 기간을 두고 충분한 자료를 수집하여 분석 및 심의를 할 수 있도록 하여야 한다.

설명하기가 유아의 실행기능에 미치는 영향 : 설명 대상의 상호작용 수준별 비교

강수정 서울대학교 대학원 2020 국내박사

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of interaction types during explanation process on young children’s executive function. The present study attempted to identify neural mechanisms that underlie behavioral reactions that is related to executive function by exploring behavioral and neural measurement. In addition, the transfer effects of interaction types during the explanation process on young children’s executive function were studied. Ultimately, this study aimed to examine how the experiences of explaining in the daily lives of young children affect their executive function. For the purpose of this study, fifty five 5-year-old children and their mothers living in Seoul or Gyeonggi province were recruited as subjects. Children performed the Dimensional Change Card Sorting (DCCS) task and the Applied Categorization (AC) task for the pre-test. Then, for the intervention, children were assigned to one of three experimental conditions depending on the interaction type during explanation process: 1) no-interaction, 2) passive-interaction, and 3) active-interaction. Children categorized in the no-interaction group did not experience any form of interaction nor provide an explanation. Children in the passive-interaction group explained the DCCS task to a robot that was designed to react with a passive response to the children’s explanations. Children in the active-interaction group explained the DCCS task to a robot that actively react to children’s explanation. In the post-test, children once again performed the DCCS task and the AC task. Pre- and post-test scores of the DCCS task were compared to examine the effects of interaction types during explanation process on young children’s executive function. When children performed the DCCS task, a percentage of the correct answers and reaction times were recorded for the behavioral measurement values. Also, neural activation levels of the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) of right and left hemisphere were recorded for neural measurement values. Neurual activation levels were assessed by calculating the concentration levels of oxygenated hemoglobin and deoxygenated hemoglobin. Next, pre- and post-test scores of the AC task were compared to investigate whether the effects of an interaction type during explanation process can be transferred to another executive function task. When children performed the AC task, a percentage of the correct answers and reaction times were recorded for the behavioral measurement values. Mothers completed a questionnaire about the social temperament of their child and monthly household income. Frequency analysis, partial correlation analysis, logistic regression analysis, and analysis of covariance were performed using IBM SPSS Statistic 20 and OBE Lab NIRSIT Lite Analysis Tool 2.0 . The main results of the present study are as follows. First, when children explained the DCCS task, those in the active-interaction condition showed a greater amount and higher quality of explanation than those in the passive-interaction condition. Next, when post-test scores regarding behavioral measurements of the DCCS task were analyzed, the reaction times were not significantly different based on the interaction type. However, children in the active-interaction condition demonstrated a greater percentage of correct answers than those in the no-interaction condition. Regarding neural measurements, unlike the right LPFC, significant differences of neural activation levels were observed in left LPFC accordant with the interaction type. That is, children in the active-interaction condition showed higher levels of neural activation in the left LPFC than those of passive-interaction and no-interaction conditions. In analyzing the correlation between the amount and quality of children’s explanations and the changes in executive function , the amount of explanation was not significantly related to the change in behavioral and neural measurements. In contrast, the quality of children’s explanations was significantly related to the changes in the reaction times and activation levels of the left LPFC. In other words, if the quality of explanation was higher, children’s reaction times were faster and the neural activation levels of the left LPFC were higher when performing the DCCS task. Finally, when children performed the AC task, there was no significant difference in the percentages of correct answer and reaction times according to interaction types during explanation process. This result suggests that there were not transfer effects of executive function change based on the interaction type. The findings of this study showed that active-interaction during explanation process plays an important role in enhancing the executive function in young childhood. In addition, improvement of executive function as a child explains to an active listener is demonstrated in this study through the observed increase of neural activation in the left LPFC. Children exhibited a higher quality of explanation when they explained the DCCS task to an active listener, and the quality of explanation was significantly related with the increase in executive function. The results of this study empirically demonstrate the sociocultural approach that emphasizes the role of language and social interaction in children’s cognitive development by exploring how children’s experiences of explaining a task to an active listener in daily life can contribute to the improvement of their executive function. This study also provides implications for parents and educators that the role of an active listener can be effective in supporting young children’s cognitive development. 이 연구의 목적은 설명 시 경험한 설명 대상과의 상호작용 수준이 유아의 실행기능에 미치는 영향을 비교해 검토하는 것이다. 특히 실행기능의 행동 측정치와 신경 측정치를 동시에 고려함으로써, 설명 대상과의 상호작용 수준에 따른 행동 변화 시 어떠한 신경 활성화 변화가 동반되는지 살펴보고자 하였다. 추가적으로 설명 대상의 상호작용 수준이 유아의 실행기능에 미치는 전이효과를 검토하여, 설명 대상의 상호작용 수준에 따른 효과의 일반화 가능성을 탐색하였다. 이를 통해 궁극적으로 유아가 일상적으로 겪는 설명 경험이 구체적으로 어떠한 과정을 거쳐 실행기능에 영향을 미치는지 살펴보고자 하였다. 이러한 연구 목적을 위해, 서울 및 경기 지역에 거주하는 5세 유아 55명과 이들의 어머니를 연구 참여자로 모집하였다. 먼저 유아를 대상으로 사전검사를 위해 카드분류과제와 응용분류과제를 실시한 후, 설명 대상의 상호작용 수준에 따라 카드분류과제에 대해 각기 다른 설명 경험을 하도록 하였다. 첫 번째 조건의 유아는 상호작용 경험을 하지 않았으며, 두 번째 조건의 유아는 수동적 대상인 로봇에게 카드분류과제에 대해 설명하였다. 세 번째 조건의 유아는 능동적 대상인 로봇에게 카드분류과제에 대해 설명하였다. 설명단계 후 다시 사후검사를 위해 카드분류과제와 응용분류과제를 실시해 실행기능의 변화를 관찰하였다. 카드분류과제는 설명 대상의 상호작용 수준이 실행기능에 미치는 영향을 확인하기 위해 활용되었으며, 응용분류과제는 설명 대상의 상호작용 수준에 따른 효과가 다른 실행기능 과제에 대해서도 전이효과를 나타내는지 확인하기 위해 활용되었다. 카드분류과제를 수행할 때는 행동 측정치로 정답률과 반응속도를, 신경 측정치로 좌우 측면 전전두엽의 활성화 정도를 측정하였다. 좌우 측면 전전두엽의 활성화 정도는 산화 헤모글로빈과 탈산화 헤모글로빈의 농도를 기록한 데이터를 분석해 확인하였다. 응용분류과제를 수행할 때는 행동 측정치인 정답률과 반응속도만을 측정하였다. 유아의 어머니는 유아의 사회성 기질 및 가구의 월 소득에 대한 질문지를 작성하였다. 수집된 자료는 부호화한 후 IBM SPSS Statistics 20과 OBE Lab NIRSIT Lite Analysis Tool 2.0에서 분석하였으며, 기술통계 분석, 편상관 분석, 로지스틱 회귀분석 및 공분산 분석을 통해 이루어졌다. 이 연구의 주요 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 유아에게 실행기능 과제인 카드분류과제에 대해 설명하도록 했을 때 수동적 대상에게 설명한 경우보다 능동적 대상에게 설명한 경우에 설명의 양이 더 많았다. 뿐만 아니라, 수동적 대상에게 설명할 때보다 능동적 대상에게 설명할 때 설명의 질이 더 높은 것으로 확인되었다. 둘째, 유아가 설명을 한 후 수행한 실행기능 과제의 행동 측정치를 분석하면, 반응속도에서는 설명 대상의 상호작용 수준에 따른 유의한 차이가 없었으나, 능동적 대상에게 설명한 경우가 상호작용이 없었던 경우에 비해 정답률이 더 높았다. 신경 측정치 분석에 따르면, 우측 측면 전전두엽과 달리 좌측 측면 전전두엽에서 설명 대상의 상호작용 수준에 따른 활성화 정도에서 유의한 차이가 관찰되었다. 능동적 대상에게 설명한 유아가 수동적 대상에게 설명한 유아 및 상호작용하지 않은 유아에 비해 좌측 측면 전전두엽의 활성화 정도가 더 높았다. 셋째, 유아가 실행기능 과제에 대해 설명했을 때 관찰된 설명 양상이 설명 후 실행기능의 변화와 유의한 상관이 있는지 살펴본 결과, 설명의 양은 행동 측정치 및 신경 측정치 모두와 유의한 상관을 보이지 않았다. 그러나 설명의 질은 행동 측정치 중 반응속도, 신경 측정치 중 좌측 측면 전전두엽 활성화 정도와 유의한 상관관계를 보였다. 즉, 설명의 질이 높을수록 설명 후 실행기능 과제 수행 시 반응속도가 더 빨라졌으며 좌측 측면 전전두엽의 활성화 정도가 더 높아졌다. 넷째, 설명 후 수행한 응용분류과제에서는 설명 대상의 상호작용의 수준에 따른 행동 측정치의 유의한 차이가 나타나지 않았다. 이러한 결과는 응용분류과제에서 측정된 정답률과 반응속도를 분석했을 때 모두 동일하였다. 다시 말해, 설명 대상의 상호작용 수준에 따른 실행기능 향상의 전이효과가 나타나지 않았다. 이 연구의 결과는 설명 시 능동적 대상과의 상호작용이 유아의 실행기능의 향상에 중요한 역할을 함을 밝혔다. 또한 능동적 대상에게 설명하기를 통해 실행기능의 행동 측정치가 향상될 때 좌측 측면 전전두엽의 활성화 정도가 함께 증가함을 보여주었다. 뿐만 아니라, 유아가 능동적 대상에게 설명한 경우에 수동적 대상에게 설명한 경우보다 설명의 질이 높았는데, 높은 설명의 질이 유아의 실행기능 향상과 유의한 관련이 있었다. 이러한 결과는 일상에서 유아가 경험하는 설명하기가 구체적으로 어떠한 과정을 통해 실행기능의 발달에 기여하는지 밝힘으로써, 아동의 인지 발달에서 언어와 사회적 상호작용의 역할을 강조한 사회문화적 구성주의 이론을 실증적으로 검증하였다는 데 의의가 있다. 또한 이 연구는 부모나 교사가 능동적인 상호작용 대상자로 역할 할 때 유아의 인지 발달 과정에 도움을 줄 수 있다는 함의를 제공한다.

학령기 주의력결핍 과잉행동장애 아동의 실행기능과 자기주도 학습능력의 향상을 위한 Cog-Fun(Cognitive-Functional) 중재의 효과

김미지 연세대학교 대학원 2018 국내석사

The purpose of this study was to investigate how Cog-Fun intervention affected executive function of school-aged children with ADHD. In addition, we sought to see if the improvement in executive function result in changes on self-directed learning. Participants of this study were 3 children who were diagnosed with ADHD in 3rd ∼ 4th grade of elementary school. The research design used ABA design with follow-up evaluation, which is a type of reversal single experimental research design. A total of 17 experimental sessions (3 baseline A, 10 intervention, 3 baseline A’, and 1 follow-up) were carried out. During the intervention phase, participants set their own goals according to the Cog-Fun intervention protocol and trained stop-strategies, plan-strategies, review-strategies and their own specific strategies to achieve the goals. Dependent variables were executive function and self-directed learning. In order to measure dependent variables, Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function(BRIEF) and Homework Problems Checklist(HPC) were conducted. The evaluation of each session included the Children’s Color Trails Test(CCTT) and Stroop Color and Word test. Results were visually graped, and anecdotal records were created and analyzed for each case. The results of this study suggest that the use of Cog-Fun interventions improves the executive function of children with ADHD. In the sessional evaluation, improvement of cognitive flexibility and suppression of executive function was confirmed. Furthermore, the planning and organizing of executive functions was improved especially in BRIEF and the problems were reduced when the self-directed tasks were performed in HPC. In anecdotal records, all the subjects were improved to plan self-directed learning and perform themselves. In conclusion, this study provides evidence that Cog-Fun intervention has a positive effect on the performance of self-directed learning and improvement of the executive function of the school-aged children with ADHD. Therefore, this study has academic and clinical significance in that this study introduced the effective intervention named Cog-Fun to Korea, which can give practical help to children. Finally, we hope that Cog-Fun interventions will be widely applied to improve the executive function of the children with ADHD and to improve their goal-oriented occupational performance. Through this, it is expected that the participation and satisfaction of children with ADHD will bw improved in school environment. 본 연구는 학령기 주의력결핍 과잉행동장애 아동을 대상으로 Cog-Fun 중재가 아동의 실행기능에 어떠한 영향을 미치는지 연구하고, 실행기능의 향상이 자기주도 학습 수행에도 변화를 가져오는지 알아보고자 하였다. 연구 대상자는 주의력결핍 과잉행동장애로 진단받은 초등학교 3∼4학년 아동으로, 사회 지수 상 교육 가능 수준 이상의 아동 3명을 선정하였다. 연구 설계는 개별실험 연구 설계(single subject experimental design) 중 ABA설계를 사용하였고, 연구 과정은 총 17회기로 진행되었으며, 기초선 기간 A 3회기, 중재 기간 B 10회기, 회귀 기초선 기간 A’ 3회기, 추적 기간 1회기를 시행하였다. 중재기간 동안 Cog-Fun 중재 프로토콜에 따라 대상자는 스스로 목표를 설정하고, 목표를 달성하기 위한 멈춤 전략, 계획 전략, 확인 전략 및 자신만의 특성화된 전략을 훈련하였다. 종속변수는 실행기능과 자기주도 학습의 수행으로 이를 측정하기 위해 실행기능 행동평가(BRIEF)와 숙제문제 체크리스트(HPC)를 사전·사후에 실시하였고, 회기별로는 아동 색-선로 잇기 검사(CCTT)와 스트룹 아동 색상-단어 검사, 자기 주도 학습 수행을 촬영과 영상 분석을 시행하였다. 결과는 선형 그래프와 막대그래프를 이용하여 시각적으로 분석하였고, 일화 기록지를 작성하여 대상자별로도 분석하였다. 연구 결과 Cog-Fun 중재를 적용했을 때, 주의력결핍 과잉행동장애 아동의 실행기능이 향상되었다. 회기별 평가에서 아동 색-선로 잇기 검사의 근사오류 수가 감소하였고, 스트룹 아동 색상-단어 검사 결과 정반응 수는 증가하여 실행기능의 인지유연성과 억제력의 향상을 보였다. 일화 기록지를 통한 대상자별 분석에서도 대상자 모두 자기주도 학습의 수행이 향상되었다. 또한 사전·사후에 측정한 실행기능 행동평가와 숙제문제 체크리스트에서는 계획 및 조직화를 포함한 실행기능이 향상되었고, 숙제 시 발생하는 문제가 감소하였다. 본 연구를 통해 Cog-Fun 중재가 학령기 주의력결핍 과잉행동장애 아동의 실행기능향상을 가져오고, 자기주도 학습의 수행에도 긍정적인 영향을 미치는 것을 확인하였다. 따라서 본 연구는 주의력결핍 과잉행동장애 아동의 실행기능 향상에 효과가 있는 Cog-Fun 중재방법을 국내에 소개한 점과 Cog-Fun 중재가 학교 및 가정환경에서 아동이 겪는 어려움에 특화하여 과제 수행의 향상에 실질적인 도움을 줄 수 있음을 확인한 점에서 학문적 의의와 임상적 의의를 갖는다 하겠다. 마지막으로 주의력결핍 과잉행동장애 아동의 실행기능 향상과 목표 지향적 작업수행의 향상을 위해 Cog-Fun 중재가 널리 적용되기를 바라며, 이를 통해 학교 환경에서도 주의력결핍 과잉행동장애 아동들의 참여와 만족도가 향상되기를 기대한다.

The Relationship Between Parenting, Expressed Emotion, Negative Emotionality, and Executive Functioning: A Developmental Perspective

Forman, Sarit University of California, Los Angeles ProQuest Dis 2025 해외박사(DDOD)

Executive functioning skills are characterized by a set of higher order cognitive processes that enable engagement in goal-directed behavior. Deficits in executive functioning are associated with numerous poor outcomes among youth, including psychopathology. Given its significance, there is a need to characterize factors that contribute to the development of executive functioning. The caregiving environment has been reliably associated with executive functioning during early childhood; however, far less work has evaluated the potential moderating role of child negative emotionality among these associations, despite replicated evidence demonstrating that child negative emotionality increases a child's sensitivity to their environment. To address this gap, this dissertation focused on characterizing associations between the caregiving environment and child executive functioning, as well as the moderating role of child negative emotionality during two developmentally significant time periods (i.e., preschool, middle childhood). Specifically, among preschool children and their mothers, Study I tested the short-term predictive utility of maternal sensitivity, maternal stimulation of cognitive development, and maternal intrusiveness with respect to child inhibitory control and set shifting one year later, as well as the moderating role of child negative emotionality. Results revealed that maternal intrusiveness predicted poorer child inhibitory control. Additionally, at low and mean levels of child negative emotionality, maternal intrusiveness predicted poorer child inhibitory control. Study II utilized a sample of girls in middle childhood and examined cross-sectional associations between parenting behaviors (i.e., attentive parenting, inconsistent discipline) and task-based child executive functioning variables (i.e., inhibitory control, set shifting, working memory) as well as parent reported child executive functioning deficits. Associations between parental expressed emotion (i.e., dissatisfaction/criticism, emotional overinvolvement) and the same executive functioning variables were also examined. The moderating role of child negative emotionality was investigated as well. Results revealed that dissatisfaction/criticism was associated with better child set shifting and working memory. Additionally, in the presence of emotional overinvolvement, high child negative emotionality was associated with poorer child working memory. These findings highlight the significance of the caregiving environment in the development of executive functioning and the importance of considering child negative emotionality when characterizing these associations. Clinical implications regarding these findings and future directions are explored.

장기간의 엑슬게임과 유산소 운동 참여가 아동의 실행기능에 미치는 영향 : Effect of Participating in a Long-term Exergame and Aerobic Exercise on Executive Functions in Children

단성위 계명대학교 일반대학원 2012 국내박사

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of participating in a long-term exergame and aerobic exercise on the executive functions in children. A total of 60 preschool-aged children were recruited in this study. They were randomly assigned into control, aerobic exercise and exergame groups. This study measured the change in the executive functions as indicated by evaluations of Card sorting, Hand game, Day-night stroop and Children's gambling tasks which included the functions of inhibit ability, shift ability, working memory, and emotional control ability. The results revealed that both aerobic exercise and exergame could facilitate the development of executive functions during the period of preschool. Swimming, as a kind of aerobic exercise, had a positive impact on inhibitory ability, working memory, and switch ability of preschooler's executive functions. Exergame, as a video-simulated physical activity, improved switch ability, working memory, and flexible rule using ability of preschooler's executive functions Furthermore, while swimming, intervention was more effective for inhibitory ability, exergame intervention had more significant effects on switch ability. However, the benefits of exergame intervention were not derived in emotional and social ability of the executive functions. 본 연구의 목적은 장기간의 엑슬게임과 유산소 운동 참여가 아동의 실행기능에 미치는 영향을 분석하는 것이다. 취학 전 아동 60명이 피험자로 참여하였으며, 통제집단, 유산소 운동집단 및 엑슬게임 집단에 각각 20명씩 무작위로 배정되었다. 본 연구에서는 카드분류, 핸드게임, 데이-나이트 스트루프, 그리고 아동용 갬블링을 평가함으로써 실행기능을 측정하였으며, 측정된 실행기능에는 억제능력, 변환능력, 작업기억, 그리고 정서적 조절능력이 포함되었다. 실험의 결과는 유산소 운동과 엑슬게임 모두 취학 전 아동의 실행기능 발달을 촉진시킬 수 있음을 보여주었다. 유산소 운동인 수영은 아동의 실행기능 중 억제능력, 작업기억, 그리고 변환능력에 정적 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 비디오 시뮬레이션을 통한 신체활동인 엑슬게임은 취학 전 아동의 실행 기능 중 변환능력, 작업기억, 유연한 규칙이용 능력을 향상시키는 것으로 밝혀졌다. 아울러, 수영을 이용한 중재활동은 억제능력에 더 효과적이었던 반면, 엑슬게임을 이용한 중재는 변환능력에 더 큰 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 하지만 실행기능의 정서적 및 사회적 능력에서는 엘슬게임 중재의 효과가 나타나지 않았다.

원시 반사 통합훈련이 주의력결핍과잉행동장애 아동의 집행기능과 행동에 미치는 영향-fMRI 연구

왕몽 계명대학교 대학원 2024 국내박사

The purpose of this study is to analyze the multifaceted impact of primitive reflex (PR) integration training on children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Specifically, this study analyzes changes in the functional connectivity of the cognitive control network (CCN), limbic system, and serotonergic (5-HT) neural networks, and changes in the degree of PR integration, executive function (EF) levels, core symptoms of ADHD, and social behavior performance, aiming to verify the therapeutic effects of PR integration training on neurodevelopmental disorders, behavioral problems, and cognitive function deficits in children with ADHD. A total of 22 children diagnosed with ADHD were included in the study. They were selected through rigorous screening using the Swanson-Nolan and Pelham-IV rating scales (SNAP-IV), the Children’s PR Integration Measurement Scale (CPRIMS), the Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM), and additional ADHD assessments by pediatricians. Behavioral performance and cognitive function were measured before and after the PR integration training intervention using the SNAP-IV, CPRIMS, childhood executive functioning inventory (CHEXI), dots task, and weiss functional impairment scale-parent (WFIRS-P). Neural activations of thirty-four (34) brain regions including those from the midbrain, limbic system, and CCN were measured before and after the PR integration training using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI). Statistical analyses included paired-sample tests, seed to voxel, and ROI-to-ROI analysis methods. Results showed significant improvements in behavioral performance and cognitive function of children with ADHD. The CPRIMS revealed significant changes in seven dimensions: ATNR, STNR, MR, TLR, SGR, SPR, and LR. WFIRS-P scores decreased significantly in family, life skills, and risk activities dimensions, but not in study, self-concept, and social activities dimensions. SNAP-IV scores decreased in inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. Cognitive function improved, with significant decreases in working memory and inhibitory control on the CHEXI scale. The dots task showed substantial decrease in ACC score, while RT scores remained relatively unchanged but exhibited a downward trend. Significant differences were observed in ACC mixed-task and RT mixed-task scores. In terms of functional connectivity, the seed-to-voxel analysis revealed notable changes in the midbrain, limbic system, and CCN. Significant results included altered connections in the nucleus centralis superior, nucleus raphes dorsalis, and nucleus raphes pontis. Changes were evident in the amygdala hippocampus, and hypothalamus, while variations in CCN regions such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex were also apparent. ROI-to-ROI analysis showed increased connectivity in the limbic system and serotonergic system, with more clusters and connections in the post-test compared to the pre-test. This study confirms that PR integration training enhances PR integration, improves EF levels, and alleviates core ADHD syptoms, leading to better social and behavioral functioning. The PR training also enhances functional connectivity within the 5-HT system and the CCN, helps normalize 5-HT transmission pathways, and mitigates limbic system abnormalities. This study highlights the significance of functional connectivities between the limbic system and brain regions involved in emotion regulation, attention, and cognitive control. It also reveals that abnormalities in frontal lobe regions are a key factor in ADHD symptoms and that PR integration training significantly improves these connections. Finally, this study confirms a causal relationship between PRs, EF and core symptoms of ADHD through behavioral, cognitive and fMRI data findings. 본 연구의 목적은 원시 반사(PR) 통합훈련이 주의력결핍과잉행동장애(ADHD) 아동에게 미치는 다면적 영향을 분석하는 것이다. 구체적으로, 본 연구는 인지조절 네트워크(CCN), 변연계, 세로토닌(5-HT) 신경 네트워크의 기능적 연결성 변화와 PR 통합 정도, 집행기능(EF) 수준, ADHD 핵심증상, 사회적 행동성과의 변화를 분석하여, PR 통합훈련이 ADHD 아동의 신경 발달장애, 행동 문제, 그리고 인지기능 결핍에 미치는 치료 효과를 검증하고자 한다. 본 연구에서는 ADHD 진단을 받은 총 22명의 아동을 연구 대상으로 선정하였다. 이들은 Swanson-Nolan 및 Pelham-IV 평가척도(SNAP-IV), 아동 PR 통합측정척도(CPRIMS), 표준진행행렬(SPM), 그리고 소아과 의사에 의한 추가 ADHD 평가를 통해 선정되었다. 행동성과와 인지기능은 PR 통합훈련 중재 전후에 SNAP-IV, CPRIMS, 아동집행기능목록(CHEXI), 도트 작업, 그리고 Weiss 기능장애 척도-부모(WFIRS-P)를 사용하여 측정하였다. 중뇌, 변연계, CCN을 포함한 34개의 뇌 영역 신경 활성화는 PR 통합훈련 전후에 휴식상태기능적자기공명영상(rs-fMRI)을 사용하여 측정하였다. 통계분석에는 짝-표본검정, 시드-투-복셀, ROI-투-ROI 분석 방법을 사용하였다. 그 결과, ADHD 아동의 행동성과와 인지기능에서 상당한 개선이 나타났다. CPRIMS는 ATNR, STNR, MR, TLR, SGR, SPR, LR의 7가지 차원에서 유의미한 변화를 나타냈다. WFIRS-P 점수는 가족, 생활기술, 위험활동 차원에서 유의미하게 감소했으나, 학업, 자아개념, 사회활동 차원에서는 변화가 없었다. SNAP-IV 점수는 부주의와 과잉행동/충동성 차원에서 감소하였다. 인지기능은 CHEXI 척도에서 작업기억과 억제제어가 유의미하게 감소했으며, 도트 작업에서는 ACC 점수가 크게 감소하였고, RT 점수는 상대적으로 변화가 적었지만, 감소 추세를 보였다. ACC 혼합작업과 RT 혼합작업점수에서는 유의미한 차이를 관찰하였다. 기능적 연결성 측면에서, 시드-투-복셀 분석은 중뇌, 변연계, CCN의 주목할 만한 변화를 나타냈다. 주요 결과로 nucleus centralis superior, nucleus raphes dorsalis, nucleus raphes pontis 에서의 연결 변화가 있었다. 변연계의 amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus에서의 변화와 함께, CCN의 dorsolateral prefrontal cortex 및 anterior cingulate cortex와 같은 지역에서도 변화가 나타났다. ROI-투-ROI 분석에서는 변연계와 세로토닌 시스템의 연결성이 증가하였으며, 후반 테스트에서 전반적으로 더 많은 클러스터와 연결을 관찰하였다. 본 연구에서는 첫째, PR 통합훈련이 PR 통합을 향상하고, EF 수준을 개선하며, ADHD의 핵심증상을 완화하여 사회적 및 행동적 기능을 향상한다는 것을 확인하였다. PR 훈련은 5-HT 시스템과 CCN 내 기능적 연결성을 강화하고, 5-HT 전이 경로를 정상화하며, 변연계의 이상을 완화하는 데 도움을 주는 것으로 나타났다. 둘째, 본 연구에서는 변연계와 감정조절, 주의, 인지조절에 관여하는 뇌 영역 간의 기능적 연결의 중요성을 강조하였다. 또한, 전두엽 영역의 이상이 ADHD 증상에 중요한 요인이며, PR 통합훈련이 이러한 연결을 유의미하게 개선한다는 것을 밝혀냈다. 마지막으로, 본 연구에서는 행동, 인지 및 fMRI 데이터 결과를 통해 PR, EF, ADHD 핵심증상 간의 인과관계를 확인하였다.

어머니의 과보호 양육이 유아의 실행기능에 미치는 영향 : 유아 기질의 조절 효과

강엄지 연세대학교 교육대학원 2021 국내석사

본 연구에서는 어머니의 과보호 양육과 유아의 기질이 유아의 실행기능에 미치는 영향을 알아보고, 어머니의 과보호 양육이 유아의 실행기능에 미치는 영향에서 유아의 기질이 조절효과를 나타내는지 검증하였다. 대전에 있는 유아교육 기관 16곳에 재원 중인 만 4, 5세반 유아와 그들의 어머니 252쌍을 연구 대상으로 하였다. 유아의 실행기능과 기질, 어머니의 과보호 양육을 어머니용 질문지를 사용하여 측정하였다. 측정 변인에 관한 기술 통계치를 산출하였고, 유아의 연령과 성별에 따른 차이는 t 검증을 통해 살펴보았다. 측정변인들 간의 관계는 Peason 적률상관계수, 중다회귀분석, 위계적 회귀분석을 통해 검증하였다. 본 연구의 결과를 요약하면 다음과 같다. 첫째, 본 연구대상 어머니들의 과보호 양육은 침해보다 걱정/보호가 높게 나타났다. 연구대상 유아들의 실행기능의 발달 수준은 중간보다 높았으며, 기질적 유형은 생리적 규칙성, 반응성, 적응성, 활동성 순으로 나타났다. 유아의 실행기능은 만 5세가 만 4세보다, 여아가 남아보다 실행기능 수준이 높았고 아동의 기질은 여아가 남아보다 활동성이 낮고 반응성이 높았다. 둘째, 어머니의 침해는 유아의 실행기능에 부적 영향을, 걱정/보호는 정적 영향을 미쳤다. 유아의 기질 중 활동성은 실행기능에 부적 영향을, 적응성과 반응성, 생리적 규칙성은 정적 영향을 미쳤다. 셋째, 어머니의 과보호 양육이 유아의 실행기능에 미치는 영향에서 유아 기질의 조절효과를 검증한 결과 조절효과는 없는 것으로 나타났다. 결론적으로 유아의 실행기능은 어머니의 과보호 양육과 유아의 기질의 영향을 받으며, 유아의 기질은 어머니의 과보호 양육이 유아의 실행기능에 미치는 영향에서 조절효과를 보이지 않는다고 할 수 있다. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of maternal overprotection and young children's temperament on their executive function and if the effects of maternal overprotection on young children's executive function were moderated by their temperament. 252 mother-child pairs from classes for four- and five-year-olds at 16 early childhood education institutions in Daejeon participated in this study. A questionnaire for mothers was used to measure young children's executive function and temperament and maternal overprotection. Descriptive statistics of variables were estimated and t-test was carried out for variation by young children's age and gender. The associations among the variables were tested through Pearson's product moment correlation coefficient, multiple regression analysis, and hierarchical regression analysis. The results of this study can be summarized as follows: First, as for maternal overprotection, they scored higher for worry/protection than for infringement. Young children's level of executive function development was higher than average; physiological regularity, followed by responsiveness, adjustment, and activity, was the most frequent type of temperament. Five-year-olds scored higher for executive function than four-year-olds; as for temperament, girls were less active and more responsive than boys. Second, young children's executive function were negatively affected by mothers' infringement and positively affected by mothers' worry/protection. In terms of temperament, young children's executive function were negatively affected by their activity and positively affected by their adjustment, responsiveness, and physiological regularity. Third, while young children's temperament had no moderating effect on the effects of maternal overprotection on their executive function, mothers' worry/protection interacted with young children's adjustment at the meaningful level and negatively affected their executive function. In conclusion, young children's executive function are affected by maternal overprotection and their own temperament and there was no moderating effect of young children's temperament on the effects of maternal overprotection on young children's executive function.

The Difference of Sport-related Cognitive Function according to Athletic Status and Type of Sport

용타위 앗차랏 University of Ulsan, Graduate School, School of Sp 2019 국내박사

Cognitive function has been recently accepted to be an essential factor along with physiological, physical, technical, and psychological factors for peak performance in sports. The present dissertation consists of two studies; study 1: the role of cognitive function in sports: a systematic review; and study 2: the difference of cognitive ability according to athletic status and type of sport. Study 1: the purpose of the primary research was to systematically determine the existing evidence on the topics of cognition and sports performance. This systematic review was conducted following the guideline of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). Relevant studies were initially discovered via electronic sources, namely PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, Wiley Online Library, and Taylor & Francis Online databases. Additional searches were performed using Google scholar and the reference lists of relevant articles. The final search was completed on April 2018. The inclusion criteria were English written studies, healthy participants who were 8-35 years old, and study investigating cognitive function corresponding to athletic status or sport expertise or sport type. Of 192 initially retrieval articles, thirty-seven eligible studies meet inclusion criteria were finally included. In the process of data extraction, relevant information was extracted including first author, year of publication, participants’ sample size, gender, age, sports experience, athletic status, sport expertise, type of sport, cognitive measurement, and result. The findings revealed the association between various aspects of cognitive function and athletic status, sports expertise, talented athlete, and sport type. Exceptional sports players were superior to sub-elite, amateur player, and ordinary people on several cognitive abilities utilizing measurements of simple and choice reaction time, go/no-go reaction time test, design fluency test, switching task, stop-signal task, flanker test, mental rotation test, tower test, stroop test, attention network test, trail making test, and digit span forward & backward test. Moreover, young talented athletes outperformed sub-talented and non-talented youth players on executive functioning. With regard to types of sport, there were significant effects on cognitive functions indicating; 1) strategic sport athletes had superior executive controls than those from interceptive sports, static sports, and non-athletes; 2) open skill athletes displayed better on inhibition, visual-spatial skills, and cognitive flexibility than closed skill athletes and non-athletes; 3) externally-paced players exhibited higher planning and problem-solving abilities in comparison to self-paced players and non-athletes; 4) self-paced athletes did more effective on response inhibition than externally-paced athletes and non-athletes. Based on preliminary results, the cognitive functions corresponding to peak performance in sports could be determined as executive function (inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility), information processing (reaction time and processing speed), and spatial skill (mental rotation ability). Superior performance seems to be associated with cognitive abilities which could be utilized to predict the athletic achievements. However, the differences in multiple cognitive functions depending upon type of sport and athletic skill level were reported, but the components of cognitive function critical to each sports type are not fully clarified. Therefore, further investigation is needed to be conducted proving the sport-related cognitive functions distinguished depending upon athletic status and type of sport. Study 2 is a cross-sectional study to determine the sport-related cognitive function across athletic status (athlete and non-athlete) and type of sport (interceptive, static, and strategic sports). There were 120 male participants including 30 boxers (interceptive sport), 30 shooters (static sport), 30 soccer players (strategic sport), and 30 non-athletes who were young adults (age range 20-30 years). According to the theoretical model of sport-related cognitive functions in study 1, the cognitive performances were examined employing five computerized tests including simple (SRT) and choice reaction time (CRT) test, flanker test (FKT), trail making test (TMT), mental rotation test (MRT), and one paper-pencil test, which is design fluency test (DFT). The results show that athletes outperformed non-athletes on simple and choice reaction time test, trail making test (TMT-A), and design fluency test, suggesting athletes were superior in speed of cognitive processing and multiple executive aspects consisting action inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and creativity. Regarding sports disciplines, interceptive and static sports athletes yielded significantly faster responding on simple reaction time as compared to strategic sport athletes and non-athletes. The shorter reaction time of choice reaction time test were observed in three sport types athletes in comparison to non-athletes, and only interceptive sport athletes did statistically higher in accuracy rate of choice reaction time test. The result of trail making test, as compared to non-athlete group, static sport athletes did significantly faster on trail making test - part A. There was significant effect of sport type on mental rotation test, indicating interceptive athletes performed better than static sport and strategic sport players, whereas non-athletes were found to be superior to strategic sport athletes. Concerning design fluency test, athletes from strategic sport could create more total unique figures than static sport athletes and non-athletes, and the higher total unique figures was also observed in interceptive sport athletes relative to non-athletes. However, no significant difference of flanker test was reported for athletic status and type of sport. The results obtained in this study indicated that the superior cognitive abilities (i.e., information processing and executive function) were associated with participation in competitive sport training regardless of sports typology. The sport type differences were related to specific cognitive components, interceptive sport favoring on cognitive processing speed and visual-spatial skills, whereas executive functions (i.e., working memory and cognitive flexibility) could be benefited from the extensive training of strategic sport. Furthermore, visual processing speed may be essential for sports performances in the static sport such as shooting.