Examining the Moral Significance of Secondhand Empathy

Anderson, Stephen The Pennsylvania State University ProQuest Dissert 2024 해외박사(DDOD)

Empathy and morality are often linked. When witnessing a person in need, feeling empathy for this person's suffering can often facilitate the belief that they are worthy of concern and a legitimate victim of a moral wrong. In this dissertation, we examine whether morality can be facilitated through secondhand empathy,where one witnesses and empathizes with the empathy expressed by another person towards a victim. Across three studies, we tested the hypothesis that secondhand empathy increases the belief that harm done to victims is morally wrong (i.e., moralization) and levels of empathic concern for victims. In Study 1, participants who were instructed to either empathize with victims (firsthand empathy) or with people who showed empathy for these victims (secondhand empathy) both reported greater moralization and concern for victims (vs. two control groups, where participants were instructed to emotionally detach themselves from victims or empathizers), suggesting that secondhand empathy may shape morality to a similar degree as firsthand empathy. In Study 2, secondhand empathy did not increase moralization or concern when compared to a baseline, no-instruction control group; however, instructions to emotionally detach oneself from empathizers (i.e., secondhand detachment) decreased moralization and concern when compared to this no-instruction control. In Study 3, we examined whether effects of secondhand empathy may differ depending on how much a person is inclined to show empathy towards a victim by default. We tested this question by comparing effects of secondhand empathy on moralization and concern when victims were part of either a stigmatized (i.e., having a history of drug addiction) or non-stigmatized (i.e., a middle-class American) group. Secondhand empathy slightly increased empathic concern (but not moralization) across both stigmatized and non-stigmatized victims. Overall, these studies provide mixed evidence that secondhand empathy can facilitate morality and concern for victims and broaden our theoretical understanding of the role of empathy in morality.

On Kuno's Empathy Perspective Theory

강현석 서강대학교 대학원 1988 국내박사

유아의 공감능력에 영향을 미치는 변인 연구 : 유아공감 면접도구를 중심으로

국은순 전북대학교 일반대학원 2023 국내박사

Early childhood is a period to form the foundation for human development. Empathy, which is the ability to understand other people’s feelings and learn to become considerate of others, is an important capability for preschoolers not only to form relationships with their peers, but also to create a healthy community. This study aims to identify the empathy levels of preschoolers and define factors affecting their empathy using 10 Empathy Story Tasks for Preschoolers(ESTP), focusing on preschoolers aged 4 and 5 years. In detail, the study selected variables related to preschoolers such as sex, age, temperament, and mother-related variables including empathy, parenting behavior, emotional expression, so as to investigate the relationship between these variables and empathy of preschoolers and then analyze the relative importance of the variables on the cognitive and emotional empathy of preschoolers. The subjects are 102 preschoolers-mother pairs from four institution of early childhood education located in Jeollabuk-do, South Korea. The preschoolers are four to five years old. The instrument used in the study include an interview to assess the empathy of preschoolers and a survey for mothers. First, the interview to assess the empathy of preschoolers was based on Ryu’s(2015) story and pictures, a validation of Feshbach & Roe’s(1968) verbal empathy assessment and Eigenberg & Lemmon’s(1980) nonverbal empathy assessment. The present author edited and complemented Ryu’s story and pictures for the study. After a literature review, preliminary research to select story tasks, and a content validity test, a total of 10 Empathy Story Tasks for Preschoolers were selected. After making a PowerPoint presentation and picture cards of the selected story tasks, an individual interview with each preschooler was conducted. The variables related to mothers(empathy, parenting behavior, emotional expression) and those related to preschoolers (temperament, empathy) were assessed using a survey. To assess the empathy of mothers, a translated and adapted version of Davis's (1994) Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) was used. The index developed by Yu (1998) was used to assess the parenting behavior, and as for the emotional expression, Yeo’s translated and adapted version (2009) of the Short Form of the SEFQ developed by Halberstadt et al.(1995) was used. The temperament of preschoolers was assessed using Han’s translated and adapted version of EAS (Buss & Plomin, 1984), and their empathy was assessed using a translated version of My Child-Empathy Scale developed by Kochanska et al. (1994). After assessing the appropriateness of the interview through preliminary research, the main research was conducted from April 3, 2022 to August 6, 2022. Only the parents who signed the <Agreement to Participate in Research> took part in the survey, and the interview was performed with their children. All processes of the study, as well as the data collection, were approved by the IRB of Jeonbuk National University. The collected data were analyzed as follows using SPSS 25.0. First, to identify the general characteristics of the study participants, a descriptive analysis was performed to calculate the frequency, percentage, and M(SD). Second, to identify the differences in empathy of preschoolers based on the preschooler-related variables (sex, age, temperament), a t/F analysis was performed. Third, to examine the correlation between the variables, the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was used. Fourth, to verify the relative effects of a variable of preschoolers (sex) and the variables of mothers (empathy, parenting behavior, emotional expression) on the empathy of preschoolers, a multiple regression was used. The major findings are as follows. First, after assessing the empathy levels of 102 four to five-year-old preschoolers using the interview for preschooler’s empathy, it was found that their cognitive empathy ranges from 23.43 to 28.52, with an average of 26.55 (SD = 1.81). The range of emotional empathy was 25.00 to 28.23, with an average of 26.34 (SD = 1.19). Considering the range of empathy of preschoolers, it can be concluded that the preschoolers who participated in this study can cognitively understand the emotional situations of other people and empathize with them. Second, after conducting a t-test to identify the differences in empathy of preschoolers based on the variables of preschoolers (sex, age), it was found that girls had higher empathy levels in general than boys. In terms of the sub-variables of empathy, there was no gender difference in cognitive empathy, and girls showed higher levels of emotional empathy than boys. After analyzing the differences in empathy of preschoolers by age, it was found that there was no statistically significant difference. An analysis of the correlation between the temperament and empathy of preschoolers showed that the temperament of preschoolers did not have a significant correlation with their cognitive and emotional empathy. Third, to identify the relationship among the variables of mothers related to the empathy of preschoolers, a correlation analysis was carried out. In terms of the relationship between the empathy and parenting behavior of mothers, empathy had a significant positive correlation with affectionate parenting behavior, but no correlation with rejecting or controlling parenting behavior. As for the relationship between the empathy and emotional expression of mothers, empathy had a significant positive correlation with positive emotional expression, but no correlation with negative emotional expression. Fourth, the relationship between the variables of mothers (empathy, parenting behavior, emotional expression) and the empathy of preschoolers is as follows. First, the total empathy levels of the mother had positive correlations with the cognitive and emotional empathy of preschoolers. In terms of the relationship between the mother’s parenting behavior and the preschoolers’ empathy, affectionate parenting behavior showed a positive correlation with the empathy of preschoolers, but rejecting or controlling parenting behavior had a negative correlation with the preschoolers’ empathy. As for the relationship between the emotional expression of the mother and the empathy of the preschoolers, the mother’s positive emotional expression had a positive correlation with the empathy of the preschoolers, whereas the mother’s negative emotional expression had a negative correlation with the empathy of the preschoolers. Fifth, the influence of the variables related to the empathy of preschoolers is as follows. Sex, among the variables of preschoolers, and empathy and emotional expression, among the variables of mothers, were found to have an effect. In detail, if the preschooler is a girl, the higher her empathy, the higher the emotional empathy levels of the mother. Also, the higher her empathy, the higher the positive emotional expression of the mother, and the lower the negative emotional expression of the mother. The main conclusion of this study is as follows. After assessing the empathy levels of four to five-year-old preschoolers using the <Empathy Story Task for Preschoolers> edited and complemented in this study, the preschoolers who participated in this study showed higher-than-average empathy levels. That is, it can be seen that preschoolers can understand the thoughts and emotions of other people and empathize with them. After investigating the effects of the variables related to preschoolers and those related to mothers on the empathy of preschoolers, the gender of preschoolers, and the empathy and emotional expression of mothers were found to be the most influential variables. In this study, interview for preschooler’s empathy, which presents stories and pictures of everyday life situations for preschoolers who lack language skills and cognitive development, was used. This study is significant as it assessed the empathy levels of preschoolers using assessment tools appropriate for their development level. Also, the study defined the effects of variables related to preschoolers (sex, gender, temperament) and mothers (empathy, parenting behavior, emotional expression) on the empathy of preschoolers. The findings contributed to a deeper understanding of empathy of preschoolers, and will serve as basis for developing intervention programs for preschoolers to enhance their empathy skills as well as parent counseling.

Empathy Development in Adolescence and Associated Neural Processing

Karan, Maira Fatima University of California, Los Angeles ProQuest Dis 2023 해외박사(DDOD)

Given previously established links with physical and psychosocial health, there has been renewed scientific interest in investigating the behavioral and neural development underlying prosocial behavior. It has been proposed that empathy is critical to the maturation of prosocial behavior during adolescence; however, there are missing gaps in our understanding of the behavioral and neural development underlying empathy in adolescence. Research is needed to clarify how processes constituting empathy, such as perspective-taking (understanding another's emotional state), empathic concern (feeling another's emotional state), and empathic responses such as personal distress, differ by age and relate to neural processing. This dissertation sought to examine age differences in the development of empathy and its associated neural activation during adolescence. Specifically, this dissertation had 3 primary aims 1) examine age-related differences in empathy (i.e., empathic concern, perspective-taking, personal distress) during adolescence, 2) investigate age-differences in neural activation among brain regions linked with pain processing, social cognition, and emotion regulation that are associated with empathy, and 3) assess the moderating role of brain regions linked with emotion regulation in the association between personal distress and prosocial behaviors. This research was accomplished by examining a sample (NTotal = 147) of human adolescent responses to a validated empathy task that youth (aged 11-17 years old) completed while undergoing a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan. Findings from this dissertation demonstrated age-differences in self-reported state empathy, but not trait empathy, as a function of gender. Neuroimaging findings did not replicate the age by gender association in empathy. Youth, irrespective of age and gender, showed positive neural activation to empathy in the bilateral anterior insula, dACC, dmPFC, and vlPFC, intimating the involvement of brain regions linked with pain processing, social cognition, and emotion regulation in empathy during adolescence. While the neural correlates of empathic concern and perspective-taking were not as clear, there was evidence of an association between lower personal distress and higher activation in the dlPFC, vlPFC, and OFC. Furthermore, preliminary evidence emerged to suggest that the bilateral OFC moderates the association between personal distress and prosocial behavior. Suggestions for future research and implications for behavioral interventions are discussed.

간호대학생을 위한 공감교육 프로그램이 공감, 대인관계 능력 및 돌봄에 미치는 효과

정진옥 연세대학교 대학원 2016 국내박사

ABSTRACT The Effect of an Empathy Education Program on Nursing Students’ Empathy, Interpersonal ability, and Caring Jeong, Jin Ok Dept. of Nursing The Graduate School Yonsei University 1. Introduction Feeling empathy is an understanding of others, to accept them, forming inner empathy by sharing, and helping others feel that they are not alone but understood (Gallese, 2007; Cunico et al, 2006). Empathy can be understood in the social and emotional aspects which are the basis of interactions and relationships. To have good social relationships, one should share another person’s feeling as well as be aware of another person’s thoughts and behaviors. Furthermore, one should be able to appropriately respond to them and to accurately express one’s feelings or another person’s feeling (Kim & Kim, 2009). In other words, the ability of inner empathy, which is cognitive and affective empathy, is expressed verbally and is connected to altruistic behaviors (Davis, 1994), which makes him or her experience positive interpersonal relationships by promoting the formation of social support networks (Koo, 2006) Empathy is a key element in supportive relationships (Alligood, 2005). In the relationship with patients, nurses communicate through interactions by becoming a therapeutic tool (Kasch, 1986). Here, the nurse’s empathy can affect the process and result of the illness process by influencing on the quality of relationship between nurse and patient (Alligood, 2005). However, although empathy is a term that is commonly used in nursing literature, due to its importance the empathy that patients feel in the course of nurses’ provision of care appears to be insufficient (Kunyk & Olson, 2001). Therefore, nursing students need to improve their interpersonal ability by learning empathic attitudes and skills that can be the foundation of interpersonal relationships while in college. This is necessary not only for adaptation to college life but also for preparation for building interpersonal relationships patients and other professionals as well as enhance care ability as a future nurse. From the aspect of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development (1959), the time in college is a critical development period in which students have to establish a mature interpersonal relationship in the early adulthood (Lee et al., 2011). Recently, the Korean nursing field has made efforts to develop interpersonal ability by paying greater attention to the importance of communication and educating communication skills in the nursing curriculum. Currently, in the certification criteria of Korea Accreditation Board of Nursing for bachelor’s degree, communication theory and human relations are classified as major basic courses in the field of humanities and social sciences (Korea Accreditation Board of Nursing, 2015), and most nursing colleges open classes related to communication and human relationship as a basic subject for lower-grade students (Kim, Park, and Lee, 2004). However, in order to practice interpersonal relationship and care that is a nature of nursing through communication based on empathic ability, an educational approach that only provides theories of communication and skills has limitations in enhancing the inner empathic ability for nursing students. In Kim and colleagues’ (2004) study of a group program in combination with lectures, for nursing sophomore students they pointed out the limitations of the current lecture-oriented classes. Nursing educators have suggested the possibility of improving empathy skills and various results through empathy education (Cunico, Sartori, Marognolli & Meneghini, 2012). Looking at empathy education programs in Korea and other countries, a systematic literature review on empathy training programs for nursing students and nurses (Brunero et al., 2010) showed that only 7 out of 17 studies were for nursing students, of which 4 studies considered the course in the curriculum as an intervention, 2 studies used a short-term communication skill program, and one study used meditation training. In Korea, a study employing an empathy education program, (Choi, 1988) only dealt with communicational empathy. Education and training programs or studies including an empathy element or having empathy ability as an outcome variable included those using bibliotherapy, multicultural education program and and Enneagram group counseling program (Yoo, 2015; Pick & Park, 2013; Lee, 2011), an emotional intelligence improvement program focusing on affective empathy (Lee & Koo, 2014) and those focusing on behavioral elements of communication skill oriented empathy (Choi, 1988; Won & Shin, 2008; Shin & Lee, 2011; Song, 2006; Kim, Park, and Lee, 2004). However, there is no study to date that developed and applied an empathy education program based on an multidimensional empathy model that encompasses cognitive, affective, and communicational empathy elements. Currently, empathy theorists and researchers have reached a consensus that understanding on empathy can be enhanced when a person has clear knowledge of cognitive and affective elements for the empathic response (Park, 2004). In other words, having empathic thinking and emotion is a prerequisite for being able to express empathy. Although communication skills are one of the behavioral elements of empathy (Williams & Stickley, 2010), empathy education based on a multidimensional empathy model that encompasses cognitive and affective factors is required,in addition to communication skills as an expressive element (Park, 2004). Therefore, this study aimed to develop an empathy education program for nursing students based on the multidimensional empathy concepts including cognitive, affective, and communicational factors of empathy, and to evaluate its effects on empathy, interpersonal ability, and caring. 2. Objectives The study aimed to develop and evaluate the effects of an empathy education program for undergraduate nursing students. Specific purposes are as follows: (1) To develop an empathy education program for undergraduate nursing students. (2) To verify the effects of the empathy education program on empathy, interpersonal ability, and caring. 3. Conceptual framework The conceptual framework of this study was based on the Empathy Organizational model (Davis, 1994) that is a multidimensional empathy model including cognitive and affective empathy. This framework is composed of antecedents, process, and outcome concepts. The antecedents include personal and situational characteristics known to affect cognitive and affective empathy, the process is an empathy education program including cognitive, affective and communicational empathy elements. Additionally, the outcomes include cognitive and affective empathy as intrapersonal outcomes, as well as communicational empathy, interpersonal ability and caring as interpersonal outcomes (figure 1). Figure 1. Conceptual framework of this study 4. Methods 1) Program development In this study, a multidimensional empathy education program including cognitive, affective, and communicational empathy elements was developed according to the phases of the ADDIE model. The development process is as follows. (1) Analysis phase An extensive review of the literature was conducted using the keywords empathy, empathy education, empathy training, empathy education program, empathy training program in nursing, effects of empathy education/training program, and teaching –learning methods in the analysis phase. Analysis of empathy-related curriculum in a college of nursing and interview with nurse and nursing student for case development and need assessment were also included. (2) Design phase This phase focused on composition of program contents, i.e., developing the purpose of the program for nursing students, understanding of empathy components, connecting the intervention to relevant outcomes, sequencing the intervention, developing evaluation methods, and making decisions of teaching strategies and learning methods. (3) Development phase This phase focused on development of the pilot program, setting the goal and theme for each session, and describing the contents, activities, and teaching methods for each session. (4) Implementation phase At this phase verification of program validity with face validity (composition validity and content validity) was done and the pilot program was implemented with four junior nursing students. (5) Evaluation phase Finally, the program was refined after analyzing and revising based on pre-test results with consideration of face validity. Phase Content 1. Analysis . Literature review - Literature review of empathy, empathy education, empathy training, empathy education program, empathy training program in nursing - Review of effects of empathy education/training program. - Review of education program of empathy improvement and teaching –learning methods . Analysis of the curriculum related empathy in a college of nursing. . Interview for case development and need assessment (nursing student, nurse) 2. Design . Composition of program contents - Development of Program purpose for nursing students - Understanding of empathy components - Connection of intervention and outcome - Sequencing of intervention - Development of evaluating method - Decision of teaching strategies and learning methods 3. Development . Development of pilot program - Setting the goal for each session - Setting theme for each session - Describing contents, activities and teaching methods for each session 4. Implementation . Pilot program implementation - Verification of program validity (Face validity) - Implementation of pre-test 5. Evaluation . Confirmation of program after analyzing and revising pre-test results with consideration of face validity Table 1. Development of the empathy education program based on the ADDIE model 2) Evaluation of Program effectiveness ⑴ Hypotheses ① To test the effects of the empathy education program on empathy variables, including two sub-variables of cognitive empathy (perspective taking and fantasy), and two sub-variables of affective empathy (empathic concern and personal distress), the following sub-hypotheses were established: Hypothesis 1-1 There will be a difference in the degree of perspective taking empathy over time between the experimental group and the control group. Hypothesis 1-2 There will be a difference in the degree of fantasy empathy over time between the experimental group and the control group. Hypothesis 1-3 There will be a difference in the degree of empathic concern over time between the experimental group and the control group. Hypothesis 1-4 There will be a difference in the degree of personal distress over time between the experimental group and the control group. ② Hypothesis 2. There will be a difference in the degree of interpersonal ability over time between the experimental group and the control group. ③ Hypothesis 3. There will be a difference in the degree of caring over time between the experimental group and the control group. ④ Furthermore, communicationa l empathy will be explored through content analysis of a reflective journal written in each session along with a final evaluative write-up upon completion of the program. ⑵ Research Design In this study, a quasi-experimental research method was used with a nonequivalent control group pre-post design. Figure 2. Research design Pre-test Intervention Post- test 1 (Immediately after) Post-test 2 (After 4 weeks) Exp. E1 X E2 E3 Cont. C1 C2 C3 . Exp.= Experimental group; Cont= Control group . E1, C1 : General Characteristics, Empathy (Cognitive, Emotional), Interpersonal ability, Caring . X : Empathy Education Program (150 min at a time, Twice a week, A total of 6 times) Writing a reflective journal after each session and final evaluative write-up . E2, E3, C2, C3 : Empathy (Cognitive, Emotional), Interpersonal ability, Caring ⑶ Sample and Sampling A total of 46 nursing students were recruited by convenience sampling from senior nursing students of the nursing department of K college in I city, Korea. Participants were divided into two groups, an experimental group of 23 and a control group of 23. ⑷ Data Collection Quantitative data were collected from April 15 to June 8, 2016, using a self reported survey at baseline (pre test), immediately following the program (post test1), and 4 weeks later (post test2). Qualitative data was collected by students’ reflective journals on each session and their records of their own final impression upon completing the program. ⑸ Measures This study used a self-administered questionnaire consisting of a total of 154 items including 28 items on empathy, 31 items on interpersonal ability, 30 items of on caring, and additional items on general characteristics (demographic characteristics, stress level, and personality traits). Approval of the developers was obtained for all of the following instruments used for this study. For empathy, the Korean version of Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) was used, which was developed by Davis (1983) and translated into Korean by Kang et al. (2009). Reliability and validity have been verified. In this study, the overall Cronbach's ɑ was .77, and as for subscales, the Cronbach's ɑ was .69 for perspective taking, .71 for fantasy, .72 for empathic concern, and .73 for personal distress. For interpersonal ability, the scale developed by Buhrmester et al. (1988) was used, which has been translated into Korean and modified as the Korean Interpersonal Competency Scale by Han and Lee (2010). Validity has been established for college students and in this study, the overall Cronbach's ɑ was .85. For caring, the Caring Efficacy Scale (Form B) (Coates, 1997) was used after translation under the permission of the developer. The Cronbach's ɑ upon development was .88, while it was .92 in this study. As part of general characteristics, stress level and personality traits were also measured. For the stress level, the Korean version of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10), originally developed by Cohen, Kamarck and Mermelatein (1983), was used. The PSS-10 was translated into Korean and its reliability and validity were verified by Lee (2012) In the study of Lee (2012), Cronbach's ɑ was .74, while it was .75 in this study. For personality traits, the Korean version of the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) was used, which was made by Goldberg (1993) and translated by Guay et al. (2013). In this study, the Cronbach's ɑ for its subdomains was as follows: .91 for extroversion, .75 for amiability/friendliness, .86 for integrity, .92 for emotional stability, and .81 for intelligence/imagination. ⑹ Intervention The experimental intervention (Empathy education program) was carried out from April 19 to May 6, 2016 for 150 minutes a session, twice a week, for 3 weeks and a total of 15 hours. The topic of each session is as follows: opening up mind, listening with one’s heart, understanding each other’s difference, knowing feelings of oneself and others, expressing empathy, empathy and caring. Various training methods such as lecture, presentation, personal activity, group activity, group discussion, modeling, role-play, homework, and writing a reflective journal were used, and as for training materials, videos, pictures, music, printed material, listening test sheet, and Ego-gram were employed. ⑺ Analytic strategy The quantitative data was analyzed with SPSS/WIN 18.0. For the analysis of general characteristics, empathy, interpersonal ability, and caring, descriptive statistics were used. Independent two samples t-test, x²-test, Fisher’s, exact test were performed for the preliminary homogeneity test, and Shapiro-wilk test was performed for the test of normal distributed dependent variables, Repeated measure ANOVA and paired t-test were used for hypothesis testing. To explore communicational empathy, the qualitative data were analyzed using content analysis method. ⑻ Ethical Considerations This study was conducted after obtaining an approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Y University (IRB Approval No. 2016-0005-4) to protect the human rights of the participants. Before the study, an independent research assistant provided explanation about the purpose and background of the study, methods and procedures, potential risks and benefits to study participants, personal information protection, and explanation about confidentiality. Also students were informed of provision of incentives for participation and assured that they could quit at any time without risk. Following explanations willing participants signed the consent form as well as a separate consent form on use of personal information (mobile phone number), which was to encourage continuous study participation and provide the incentive. The collected questionnaires were kept in a cabinet with a lock, the results were saved and managed in the computer after encoding, and personal information (mobile phone number) was deleted after delivering the incentive. In addition, participants were informed that the study related data will be retained for 3 years after study completion and thereafter destroyed by incineration. 5. Results 1) The empathic education program The final composition of the empathic education program is as follows (table 2): The program’s six sessions are composed of three parts: introduction, understanding of empathy, and integral application. The introduction phase is to understand the objective of the program and shape mutual affinities through opening up each other’s mind. The understanding of empathy phase consists of cognitive, affective, and communicational empathy. The integral application phase consists of role play to apply the attitude and skills of empathy in conflict situations of everyday life and clinical nursing. The flow of each session followed introduction, deployment, and termination phases. In the introduction participants got to know each other and learning objectives were introduced. In the deployment phase, theory and practice were employed. The termination phase is composed of summary, introduction of the next session, and writing a reflective journal. Table 2. The empathy education program 2) Evaluatin program effectiveness ⑴ Homogeneity Test of General Characteristics between Experimental and Control Group The result of homogeneity test on general characteristics such as age, religion, experience of hospitalization, satisfaction of their major, and the satisfaction of clinical practicum, personality trait and stress level found no significant differences between the experimental and control group (Table 4). Table 4. Homogeneity Test of General Characteristics between the Experimental and Control Group (N=46) Characteristics Categories Exp. (n=23) Cont. (n=23) t or x² p n(%) or Mean±SD n(%) or Mean±SD Age (yrs) 22.57±0.99 22.35±1.11 0.70 .48 Religion Yes 11(47.8) 7(30.4) 1.46 .37 No 12(52.2) 16(69.9) Experience of hospitalization (Family/Self) Yes 20(87.0) 20(87.0) 0.015 1.00* No 3(13.0) 3(13.0) Satisfaction of major Satisfied 17(73.9) 15(65.2) 0.41 .75 Not satisfaction 6(26.1) 8(34.8) Satisfaction of practicum Satisfied 17(73.9) 16(69.9) 0.11 1.00 Not satisfaction 6(26.1) 7(30.4) Personality trait Extraversion 28.60± 8.14 29.831± 7.78 -0.52 .61 Agreeableness 36.87± 4.78 37.52± 4.63 -0.47 .64 Conscientiousness 32.47± 7.80 31.22± 6.91 0.58 .57 Neuroticism 26.39± 9.10 27.30± 8.47 -0.35 .73 Openness to experience 31.91± 6.16 29.65± 5.85 1.28 .21 Stress level 20.09±4 .79 19.91± 5.57 0.11 .91 * Fisher’s exact test Exp.= Experimental group; Cont.= Control group ⑵ Homogeneity Test of Dependent variable between Experimental and Control Group The result of homogeneity test on the dependent variables (empathy, interpersonal ability and caring) showed that there was no significant difference between the control group and the experimental group at baseline (Table 5). Table 5. Homogeneity Test of Dependent Variables between Experimental and Control Group (N=46) Variables Range Exp. (n=23) Cont. (n=23) t p Mean±SD Mean±SD Cognitive empathy Perspective taking 0-28 18.26±3.65 18.13±4.20 0.112 .911 Fantasy 0-28 17.74±3.03 16.30±3.95 1.382 .174 Affective empathy Empathic concern 0-28 19.00±4.21 18.83±3.79 0.147 .884 Personal distress 0-28 16.74±2.58 16.52±3.63 0.492 .625 Interpersonal ability 1-5 3.19±0.52 3.30±0.38 -.773 .444 Caring 1-6 4.07±0.53 3.98±0.69 0.455 .651 ⑶ The Result of Hypothesis testing ① The empathy education program was effective in increasing the perspective taking empathy score of the experimental group compared to the control group (F=4.87, p=.012). ② There were no significant differences in the fantasy score between the experimental group and control group (F=3.358, p= .701). ③ The empathy education program was effective in increasing the empathic concern score of the experimental group compared to the control group (F=3.272, p=.048). ④ The empathy education program resulted in decrease of the personal distress score of experimental group compared to the control group (F=2.268, p=.022). ⑤ Through content analysis of students’ reflective journals and their final records of this program, four theme clusters were derived; ‘Improvement of empathic expression,’ ‘Experiencing comfort and healing,’ ‘Improvement of interpersonal relationships,’ and ‘ Experiencing conflict resolution'. This suggests that the empathy education program was influential for enhancing communicational empathy. ⑥ The empathy education program was effective in increasing the interpersonal ability score of the experimental group compared to the control group (F=9.595, p<0.001). ⑦ Lastly, the empathy education program was effective in increasing the caring score of the experimental group compared to the control group (F=9.595, p<0.001) 6. Discussion This study aimed to confirm the effects on empathy, interpersonal ability, and caring, after developing and applying an empathy education program for nursing students based on multidimensional empathy concepts that encompass cognitive, affective, and communicational empathy elements. Looking at the effect of cognitive empathy of this empathy education program, the score of perspective taking, one of the sub-dimensions of cognitive empathy, was improved in the participants, but there was no change in the score of fantasy. Therefore, the effect of cognitive empathy of this education program can be considered to be improved partially. However, since the primary objective of cognitive empathy was perspective taking when the empathy education program was developed, in such aspect, this program can be considered effective. This program showed its effect on perspective taking of cognitive empathy with a short intervention time of 15 hours, which was shorter than the 21 hours in Shin’s study (1997), thus can be a practical merit in its implementation for nursing students. Examining the effect of affective empathy, the score of empathic concern increased, but the score of personal distress decreased. Park (2004) stated that formation of affective empathy and the direction to which the emotion actually functions must be separated, and suggested that the empathic concern or personal distress mentioned by Davis (1994) refers to a mediation process. According to Park, empathic concern leads people to act for the other’s welfare, while personal distress refers to the process mediating another person to be away from the pain that the person suffers from. In this aspect, if personal pain is reduced through the empathy education program, people will be able to act more empathically. In the future, for empathy education programs, strategies to help people actively intervene with empathy and the will to care must be developed, not just objectively being aware of and watching the other’s empathy through cognitive empathy. In addition, the result of investigation on the change of communicational empathy through content analysis on reflective journal and final impressions writings showed that this empathy education program was effective on communicational empathy as well. This can be interpreted that the ability to communicate, which is expressive empathy, can be influenced through partial improvement of cognitive and affective empathy. This study’s finding on effectiveness of the intervention on interpersonal ability, is consistent with the outcomes of many studies revealing that communication programs composed of various methods, including discussions, demonstrations, role plays, etc., as well as lectures targeting small groups, are effective in improving interpersonal abilities (Shin & Lee, 2011; Won & Shin, 2008; Kim, Park, & Lee, 2004). Additionally, interpersonal ability and caring both increased after provision of the program. When taking into account the fact that empathic concern acts as a parameter connecting part of affective empathy or the awareness of affective empathy with prosocial behaviors (Park, 2004), the effect of the increase of empathic concern seems to contribute to the increase of actual interpersonal ability and caring in nursing students. In conclusion, the Empathy Education Program positively influenced growth of intrapersonal empathy, such as cognitive and affective empathy, and was also conductive in increasing expressive empathy in the form of empathy. The program was also influential in increasing interpersonal ability and caring of nursing students. In this respect, this Empathy Educational Program can contribute to enhance nursing students’ability to connect with clients and other healthcare professionals, form a good relationship, and possibly improve the quality of nursing in clinical fields. ______________________________________________________________________ Key words; Empathy, Empathy Education Program, Interpersonal ability, Caring 국 문 요 약 간호대학생을 위한 공감교육 프로그램이 공감, 대인관계 능력 및 돌봄에 미치는 효과 본 연구의 목적은 간호대학생들을 대상으로 다차원적인 공감개념에 입각하여 공감교육 프로그램을 개발하고, 이를 적용하여 공감, 대인관계 능력 및 돌봄에 미치는 효과를 평가하고자 하는 것이다 본 연구는 ADDIE 모델의 개발방법에 따라 인지적, 정서적, 의사소통적 공감요소를 포함한 다차원적 공감교육 프로그램을 개발하고, 이를 간호학생에게 적용한 후 공감, 대인관계 능력 및 돌봄에 미치는 효과를 평가하기 위한 실험군 대조군 전후 유사실험설계이다. 연구대상자는 I시 K여자대학교의 간호학과에 재학 중인 4학년 총 46명으로 실험군 23명, 대조군 23명이며, 2016년 4월 19일에서 5월 6일 까지 실험군에게 1회 2시간 30분씩, 주 2회, 3주간의 프로그램으로 총 6회에 걸쳐 15시간으로 구성된 프로그램을 적용하였다. 프로그램의 각 회기의 주제는 마음열기, 마음으로 경청하기, 서로 다름을 이해하기, 자신과 타인의 감정을 알아채기, 공감 표현하기, 공감과 돌봄이라는 6가지 주제로 강의, 발표, 개인활동, 그룹 활동, 집단토의, 모델링, 역할극, 과제, 성찰일지 등의 교육방법과 비디오, 그림과 사진, 음악, 유인물, 경청검사지, Ego-gram 검사 등의 교육자료를 활용하였다. 자료수집은 2016년 4월 15일에서 6월 8일까지 진행했으며 양적 자료는 자가보고식 설문지를 이용하여 프로그램 전, 후(3주 후) 및 프로그램 종료 후 4주 후(7주 후)에 공감, 대인관계 능력 및 돌봄에 대한 자료를 수집하였고, 질적 자료는 매 회기별 성찰일지와 소감문을 통해 수집하였다. 수집된 자료는 IBM SPSS Statistics 18.0을 이용하여 일반적 특성 및 종속변수는 실수, 백분율, 평균과 표준편차로 분석하였고, 실험군과 대조군의 사전 동질성 검정은 independent t-test와 x²-test, Fisher’s exact test로, 종속변수의 정규분포 검정은 shapiro-wilk test로 검정하였다. 가설은 Repeated measure ANOVA, 각 군간 사전 사후 비교는 paired t –test로 검정하였다. 또한 매 회기별 성찰일지와 프로그램 종료 후 소감문의 내용분석을 통해 의사소통적 공감을 확인하였다. 분석을 통해 확인된 본 연구의 결과는 다음과 같다. 1. 대상자의 일반적 특성인 연령, 종교, 자신이나 가족의 입원 경험, 전공 만족도, 실습에 대한 만족도, 성격특성 및 스트레스 강도와 연구변수인 공감의 하위변수 4가지 즉 관점 취하기, 상상하기, 공감적 관심, 개인적 고통 및 대인관계 능력과 돌봄에 대한 사전 동질성 검정 결과 실험군과 대조군 간에 통계적으로 유의한 차이가 없어 두 군은 동질한 것으로 확인되었다. 2. 간호대학생을 대상으로 한 공감교육 프로그램의 공감변수에 대한 효과를 검정하기 위해 인지적 공감의 2개 하위변수인 관점취하기와 상상하기, 정서적 공감의 2개 하위변수인 공감적 관심과 개인적 고통에 대한 효과를 각각 확인하기 위한 가설검정 결과는 다음과 같다. 가설 1-1. ‘간호학생을 대상으로 한 공감교육 프로그램에 참석한 실험군과 참석하지 않은 대조군은 시간경과에 따른 인지적 공감 중 관점취하기 정도에 차이가 있을 것이다’라는 가설은 집단 간(F=7.06, p=.011)와 집단 내(F=9.031, p <.001), 집단과 시간의 교호작용(F=7.239, p=.001) 모두 통계적으로 유의하게 차이가 있는 것으로 나타나 가설 1-1은 지지되었다. 또한 실험군의 사전 사후 변화를 확인하기위한 분석결과 프로그램 중재 전에 비해 프로그램 중재 종료 4주 후 관점취하기 점수가 향상된 것으로 나타났다(t=-4.665, p<.001). 가설 1-2. ‘간호학생을 대상으로 한 공감교육 프로그램을 실시한 실험군과 대조군은 시간경과에 따른 인지적 공감 중 상상하기 정도에 차이가 있을 것이다’라는 가설은 집단 간(F=6.537, p=.014)에는 유의한 차이를 보였으나 집단 내(F=3.358, p= .817)와 집단 및 시간의 교호작용(F=2.073, p= .132)에는 통계적으로 유의하게 차이가 없는 것으로 나타나 가설 1-2은 기각되었다 가설 1-3‘간호학생을 대상으로 한 공감교육 프로그램을 실시한 실험군과 대조군은 시간경과에 따른 정서적 공감 중 공감적 관심 정도에 차이가 있을 것이다’가설은 집단 간(F=3.601, p=.064)에는 유의한 차이가 없었으나 집단 내(F=4.742, p=.011)와 집단과 시간의 교호작용(F=4.719, p=.011)에는 통계적으로 유의한 차이가 나타나 가설 1-3은 지지되었다. 또한 실험군의 사전 사후 변화를 확인하기위한 분석결과 프로그램 중재 전에 비해 프로그램 중재 종료 4주 후 공감적 관심 점수가 향상된 것으로 나타났다(t=-3.525, p=.002). 가설 1-4 ‘간호학생을 대상으로 한 공감교육 프로그램을 실시한 실험군과 대조군은 시간경과에 따른 정서적 공감 중 개인적 고통 정도에 차이가 있을 것이다’라는 가설은 집단 간(F=4.878, p=.032), 집단 내 (F=9.909, p< 0.001) 및 집단과 시간의 교호작용(F=3.904, p=.024) 모두 통계적으로 유의한 차이가 나타나 가설 1-4는 지지 되었다. 또한 실험군의 사전 사후 변화를 확인하기위한 분석결과 프로그램 중재 전에 비해 프로그램 중재 종료 4주 후 개인적 고통 점수가 감소된 것으로 나타났다(t=3.238, p=.004). 3. 참석자들의 공감교육 프로그램 참석 후 의사소통 공감의 변화를 확인하기 위한 내용분석 결과‘공감적 표현의 향상’, ‘위안과 치유를 경험’, ‘대인관계 향상’, ‘갈등해결을 경험’등의 4가지 주제가 도출되어 의사소통적 공감의 변화가 있었음을 알 수 있었다. 4.‘간호학생을 대상으로 한 공감교육 프로그램에 참여한 실험군과 대조군은 시간경과에 따른 대인관계 능력 정도에 차이가 있을 것이다’라는 가설은 집단 간(F=7.623, p=.008), 집단 내(F=17.752 p<0.001) 및 집단과 시간의 교호작용(F=14.064, p<0.001) 모두 통계적으로 유의한 차이가 나타나 가설 3은 지지 되었다. 또한 실험군의 사전 사후 변화를 확인하기위한 분석결과 프로그램 중재 전에 비해 프로그램 중재 종료 4주 후 대인관계 능력이 향상된 것으로 나타났다(t=-7.741, p<.001). 5.‘간호학생을 대상으로 한 공감교육 프로그램에 참여한 실험군과 대조군은 시간경과에 따른 돌봄 정도에 차이가 있을 것이다.’라는 가설은 집단 간(F=11.637, p=.001), 집단 내(F=16.853, p<0.001), 집단과 시간의 교호작용(F=9.595, p<0.001) 모두 통계적으로 유의한 차이가 나타나 가설 2는 지지 되었다. 또한 실험군의 사전 사후 변화를 확인하기위한 분석결과 프로그램 중재 전에 비해 프로그램 중재 종료 4주 후 돌봄 점수가 향상된 것으로 나타났다(t=-9.256, p<.001). 이상의 연구결과를 종합해 볼 때 연구 참여자들은 인지적, 정서적, 의사소통적 공감요소가 모두 포함된 다차원적 개념의 공감개념에 입각하여 개발된 공감교육 프로그램을 통해 공감에 있어서 인지적 공감의 관점취하기와 정서적 공감 중 공감적 관심이 향상되고, 정서적 공감 중 개인적 고통이 감소되었으며, 대인관계 능력 및 돌봄이 향상되는 것으로 나타났다. 또한 성찰일지와 소감문 분석결과 의사소통적 공감도 향상되었다. 이는 본 공감교육 프로그램이 개인내적 공감인 인지적, 정서적 공감을 부분적으로 향상시킴으로써 내적 공감을 표현하는 의사소통적 공감에 변화를 가져와 대인관계 능력과 간호사로써 필요한 자질인 돌봄을 향상시켰음을 보여준 결과로 해석할 수 있다. 본 공감교육 프로그램은 단순한 기술로써의 공감이 아닌 내면의 공감을 회복하고 향상시켜 대인관계 능력을 키움으로써 간호대학생들의 대학생활 적응을 돕고 임상현장에서 환자의 마음을 이해하고 그 요구를 해결하는 돌봄을 향상시켜 간호의 질을 높이는데 유용한 기초 자료로 활용될 수 있을 것이다. _________________________________________________ 핵심어: 공감, 공감교육 프로그램, 대인관계 능력, 돌봄

공감능력 함양을 위한 그림책 읽기지도 모형 개발

이민옥 가톨릭대학교 대학원 2023 국내박사

논문개요(초록) 본 연구는 공감능력 함양을 위한 그림책 읽기지도 모형을 개발하는 데 목적이 있다. 공감능력의 개념과 구성요소, 공감능력의 발달에 대한 기존 연구 및 논의들을 탐색하고, 그림책이 감정을 유발하는 특질과 기제를 분석함으로써 공감능력 함양을 위한 그림책 읽기지도의 원리를 도출하고, 읽기지도 모형 초안을 개발했다. 개발된 초안 모형은 전문가들의 검토를 거쳐서 수정, 보완되었다. 이후 수정된 모형 초안을 초등학교 1학년을 대상으로 실제 수업 상황에 적용하고, 그 효과를 분석함으로써 모형의 타당성을 검증했다. 공감능력 함양을 위한 그림책 읽기지도 모형을 적용해서 수업을 받았던 실험집단은 모형을 적용하지 않은 통제집단에 비해 사후 검사에서 공감 능력이 유의미하게 향상되었다. 모형을 적용한 수업 상황에서 얻을 수 있었던 학생들의 반응 및 활동 자료, 그리고 수업을 담당했던 교사의 자기 성찰 노트 등을 기반으로 공감능력 함양을 위한 그림책 읽기지도 모형으로 수정 보완이 필요한 사항들을 다시 반영해서, 최종 모형을 개발했다. 본 연구에서 개발된 공감능력 함양을 위한 그림책 읽기지도 모형은 인지적, 정서적, 의사소통적 요소들이 유기적으로 통합하면서 순환적으로 발달해야 한다는 관점을 보여준다. 공감은 복잡하고 총체적인 현상이지만 공감능력 향상을 목표로 하는 의도적인 수업은 준비→ 공감적 이해→ 공감적 공명→ 공감의 표현→ 공감의 내면화→정리 등의 순서로 지도하면서 학습자들이 생각하지 못했던 등장인물의 상황, 감정 등에 대해 생각하고, 느끼게 하면서, 또한 자신의 삶과 연결하여 등장인물과 동일하지는 않지만 유사한 감정을 느끼고 표현하면서 내면화하는 과정을 거치도록 스캐폴딩 하여 학습자들의 공감능력이 발달할 수 있도록 설계하였다. 이러한 단계적이면서도 순환적인 그림책 읽기지도 모형은 다양한 유형의 학습자들이 타인의 입장과 관점에서 사고하고 행동할 수 있는 능력을 확장시킬 수 있게 함으로써 공감능력 향상에 효과를 발휘할 수 있을 것이다. 주제어 : 공감능력, 공감교육, 그림책 읽기, 공감능력 함양 그림책 읽기지도 ABSTRACT The study aims to develop a picturebooks reading instruction model for fostering empathy. A draft model and the principles of picturebooks reading instruction for cultivating empathy are derived by exploring the concept and components of empathy, reviewing literature on the development of empathy, and analyzing the characteristics and mechanisms of picturebooks that induce emotions. The draft model was revised and supplemented according to expert reviews, and then the revised model was applied to the actual classroom for the first graders of elementary school to verify the validity of the model by analyzing the effect on real educational settings. The experimental group, which attended class implementing the revised version of the picturebooks reading guidance model for cultivating empathy, showed significant improvement in empathy in the post-test compared to the control group to which the model was not applied. While the experiment indicates a significant role of the revised reading guidance model, there still were certain factors that need to be modified. The two major factors obtained via the experiment were investigated to develop the final model : (1) students' reaction and activity data obtained in the classroom where the model was applied, (2) the self-reflection notes of the teacher in charge of the class. The picturebooks reading guidance model developed in this study shows that cognitive, emotional, and communicative factors should be organically integrated and developed cyclically. While empathy is a complex and holistic concept, the intentional teaching aimed at improving empathy ability is need to be prepared in the order of 'preparation → empathic understanding → empathetic resonance → expression of empathy → internalization of empathy → organizing, etc'. The process is designed to scaffold learners to greater empathy by prompting them to internalize the feelings and emotions of the characters and to express not identical but similar emotions to the characters, connecting them with their own lives. This step-by-step and cyclical picture book reading instruction model will be effective in improving empathy by allowing various types of learners to expand their ability to think and act putting themselves in other's shoes. Keywords : empathy, empathy education, picturebooks reading, picturebooks reading instruction to cultivate empathy

소셜미디어 마케팅 활동, 고객자산 및 고객충성도 간의 관계

권금남 안동대학교 일반대학원 2024 국내박사

The Relations between Social Media Marketing Activities, Customer Equity, and Customer Loyalty Kwon, Keum Nam Department of Business Administration Graduate School Andong National University Abstract As the marketing communication environments has changed structurally with the emergence of social media, consumer behavior begin with empathy and change into an environment in which content can be distributed only when it was empathized. Unlike past assumptions that consumers were rational, emotional elements are now emphasized in advertising and other marketing communications. As a result, the importance of empathy has come to the forefront. In a saturated market with various competitors, companies recognize that retaining existing customers is more effective for revenue generation than acquiring new ones. The concept of customer equity suggests that customers should be managed as assets. To achieve this, companies have started leveraging social media marketing for relationship management with their customers. However, understanding the methods to build and strengthen customer-brand relationships that lead to loyalty remains an ongoing effort. In a previous studies to build and strengthen relationships between customers and brands using social media marketing, the most important argument is that social media marketing activities (SMMA) affect consumer behavior through customer equity. In representative studies, Godey et al. (2016), Ismail (2017), and Choedon & Lee (2020) utilized the five dimensions of SMMA suggested by Kim & Ko (2012). The five dimensions consist of entertainment, interaction, trendiness, customization, and word of mouth. Yadav & Rahman (2018) and Lee Jae-rok (2018) utilized five dimensions developed by Yadav & Rahman (2017). Seo & Park (2018) constructed the dimension of SMMA by adding perceived risk to entertainment, interaction, trendiness, and customization with reference to previous studies. word of mouth was excluded as a result of SMMA. Sano (2015) proposed four dimensions of SMMA by adding risk, which means risk reduction, to interaction, trendiness, and customization. word of mouth seems to be a result of SMMA, and entertainment was also excluded since the purpose of the visit was to obtain information rather than entertainment. Looking at the preceding studies above, there are insufficient studies that have newly developed the dimension of SMMA. Therefore, in this study, relationship marketing orientation factors related to the activities of forming, maintaining, and strengthening relationships were added as a new dimension of SMMA. Relationship marketing orientation is an activity that considers the relationship with a client to be important and is involved in forming, maintaining, and strengthening relationships. There are six dimensions of relationship marketing orientation, such as empathy, bonding, shared value, communication, reciprocity, and trust, and empathy is the most appropriate to apply to social media situations. The reason is that communication is replaced by the word of mouth and Interaction on social media, and bonding, shared value, reciprocity, and trust may be included in or appear as a result of the word of mouth and interaction. Therefore, among the dimensions of Kim & Ko (2012), which are most commonly used in SMMA research, customization was excluded as a generalized function supported by all systems, and a new SMMA was formed by adding empathy. The SMMA of this study used entertainment, interaction, trendiness, word of mouth, and empathy as the lower dimensions. For empirical analysis, we examined the impact of SMMA on luxury cosmetics. Considering brand awareness and marketing activity levels (such as subscriber count and update frequency), we selected ten luxury brands (including Lancôme, Estée Lauder, Christian Dior, Chanel Beauty, Guerlain, M·A·C, Bobbi Brown, Yves Saint Laurent Beauty, Make Up For Ever, and Gucci Beauty). We collected data from individuals aged 20 and above who subscribe to or frequently engage with social media content from these selected luxury cosmetic brands. The data was gathered through a survey conducted by a research agency. Out of the 250 collected responses, 212 were deemed suitable for analysis. We utilized SPSS 23 and AMOS 21 for our statistical analysis. As a result of the analysis, it was confirmed that extended SMMA had a partial positive (+) effect on customer equity, and customer equity had a partial positive (+) effect on customer loyalty. It was found that entertainment, word of mouth had a positive (+) effect on value equity and empathy, trendy had a positive (+) effect on brand equity and entertainment, Interaction had a positive (+) effect on relationship equity. It was confirmed that brand equity and relationship equity had a positive (+) effect on customer loyalty, and the value equity did not appear. This result suggests that it is necessary to focus on increasing brand equity and relationship equity to strengthen customer loyalty. Furthermore, the confirmed impact of empathy on brand Equity suggests that it can be leveraged to build and enhance brand awareness and brand image. In a competitive market with various alternatives, content that increases consumers’ empathy can help establish a lasting impression of the brand and enhance the likelihood of being chosen as a preferred option. Moreover, the emergence of value-based consumption driven by consumer empathy is shaping a new lifestyle. Concepts like ethical consumption, fair trade, and social enterprises are gaining prominence. These phenomena defy traditional economic logic. Empathy toward the people who create products, the potential suffering caused by our consumption, and environmental concerns play crucial roles in this emerging trend of value-based consumption. Companies are actively participating in this empathy-driven economy through social media campaigns. Therefore, the impact of empathy in social media marketing activities is bound to increase. By involving consumers from product design to the final product, companies spread empathy and create meaningful interactions. For instance, inviting fashion bloggers to the front row of fashion shows for immediate feedback sharing on social media or hosting brand parties and events are common strategies. Meaningful interactions occur through customer engagement, resulting in valuable exchanges of information and resources between customers and marketing professionals. These interactions strengthen relationships not only customers, the brand, product, and company but also among other customers. As a result, customer participation enhances satisfaction, spreads empathy, and reinforces brand relationships. The strengthening of relationships is closely linked to customer loyalty. Ultimately, the interaction with empathetic customers contributes to the improvement of relationship equity. Interestingly, the study found that value equity does not directly impact customer loyalty. This suggests that the importance of different factors may vary based on industry, company maturity, and customer decision-making processes. The MZ generation is expected to become the primary consumer group. This generation prioritizes fairness and values, attaching significance not only to cost-effectiveness and convenience but also to non-monetary factors such as environmental protection and labor rights during their consumption process. Considering the changing consumption trends, especially among the upcoming MZ generation, companies should tailor their marketing strategies to reinforce value perceptions beyond cost-effectiveness and convenience. Focusing on non-monetary aspects like environmental protection and labor rights could resonate with this generation and contribute to brand value creation. Finally, it is worth noting that existing studies have analyzed SMMA as a secondary structure and focused only on their overall impact. However, no studies have compared individual dimensions in terms of the impact of SMMA on customer equity. Our study contributes by examining specific SMMA dimensions affecting customer equity and comparing their relative effects. This information can guide marketing strategies by highlighting specific areas of competence. Key words: empathy, relationship marketing orientation, customer loyalty, social media marketing activities, customer equity, relationship equity, value equity, brand Equity.

Sex Differences in the Voluntary Control of Pain Empathy: An EEG Study.

최수연 서울대학교 대학원 2021 국내석사

Contrary to the long-held belief that empathy is automatic and reflexive, recent evidence has begun to emphasize the role of top-down processes in empathic experience. That is, empathy is increasingly conceived as motivational in nature. The present study aims to investigate whether the effect of motivation for empathy is modulated by biological sex. 24 subjects (14 men, 10 women) viewed pictures of painful situations either passively or actively trying to up- or down-regulate empathy. As an index of empathic resonance with the target’s pain, I measured the EEG mu suppression. The results showed that men, as expected, exhibited the strongest mu suppression during up-regulation. For women, however, the strongest mu suppression occurred while trying to down-regulate pain empathy. One possible interpretation of such results for women is that their active inhibiting efforts “backfired”, paradoxically leading to the greatest level of vicarious pain. In conclusion, women appear to experience greater difficulty voluntarily modulating pain empathy. Empathy for men, on the other hand, appears to be more motivational and flexible in nature. These findings contribute a line of neural evidence to the Primary Caretaker Hypothesis, which posits that empathy may have evolved from offspring care, a role predominantly associated by female primates. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. 공감이란, 타인이 겪고 있는 감정적 상황을 마주할 때, 그 감정을 공유하는 인지적 현상을 의미한다. 학계의 인식과 대중의 통념을 막론하고, 공감은 자동적인 현상으로 오랫동안 이해되어 왔다. 즉, 공감은 단순 반사와 같은 현상으로서 선천적으로 부여된 기질이자 능력이기에, 그 경험을 크게 향상시키거나 억제하는 등의 자발적 조절은 쉽지 않다고 여겨져 왔다. 하지만, 공감의 경험에 있어 주체의 선택이나 의지가 갖는 역할이 간과되어서는 안 되며, 본 연구는 이러한 공감의 하향식(top-down) 조절에 주목하고자 하였다. 본 연구는 ‘일차양육자 가설’을 그 이론적 기반으로 차용하여, 공감의 하향식 조절에 있어 생물학적 남녀차가 있을 것임을 예측하였다. 이러한 가설을 경험적으로 확인하기 위하여, 총 24명(남성 14명, 여성 10명)의 참여자가 모집되었다. 이들은 고통스러운 상황을 묘사하는 사진을 총 세 가지 조건 아래에서 감상하였다. 첫째, 평소와 같은 상태, 둘째, 상대의 고통에 대한 공감을 최대화하기 위하여 적극적으로 노력하는 상태, 셋째, 상대의 고통에 대한 공감을 최소화하기 위하여 적극적으로 노력하는 상태가 상기한 세 가지 조건이었다. 이 때, 상이한 조건들 아래에서 참여자가 보이는 고통 공감의 정도는 EEG(electroencephalogram)를 통하여 뇌파의 형태로써 기록되었다. 보다 구체적으로, 고통 공감의 정도는 참여자의 체감각피질의 간접적 활성화 정도를 반영하는 뮤리듬을 통하여 측정되었다. 실험 결과, 남성들은 공감을 증가시키기 위하여 노력할 때, 가장 강한 체감각피질의 활성화를 보였다. 그러나 여성의 경우, 공감을 억제하기 위하여 노력하는 동안 역설적으로 가장 강한 체감각피질의 활성화를 보였다. 이러한 결과는, 인위적으로 고통 공감을 억제하려는 노력이 오히려 역효과를 야기하였을 가능성을 비친다. 즉, 본 연구의 결과는, 여성의 공감이 남성의 그것에 비해 더욱 자동적이며 보편적으로 체화된 생물학적 반응일 수 있음을 함의한다. 반면, 남성의 고통 공감은 더 유연하며 선택적 성질을 띨 수 있는 것으로 보인다. 따라서, 이들의 고통 공감에 대한 의지적 조절은 상대적으로 더 수월할 수 있었다고 해석 가능하다. 본 연구의 이러한 발견은, 공감의 진화적 근원은 ‘육아’라는 여성의 역할이라고 추정하는 ‘일차양육자 가설’에 뇌과학적 근거를 기여할 수 있을 것으로 판단한다. 그 밖의 이론적, 실용적 함의가 논의된다.

호프만의 공감 이론에 기초한 도덕교육 프로그램 연구

이애란 전북대학교 교육대학원 2025 국내석사

This study aims to design a moral education program based on Martin L. Hoffman’s empathy theory and analyze the impact of empathy on moral judgment and behavioral practice. Traditional moral education has primarily focused on transmitting norms and principles, but such an approach has limitations in fostering students' moral internalization and practical application. Thus, this study explores an educational approach that utilizes empathy as a moral motivator and proposes a systematic moral education program based on Hoffman’s empathy theory. First, this study examines the relationship between empathy and morality, explaining how empathy promotes moral behavior by analyzing Hoffman’s stages of empathy development and the concept of empathic distress. Furthermore, it discusses how empathy serves as a fundamental mechanism for moral judgment and practice beyond a mere emotional response. The study explores three core concepts—(1) qualitative transformation of empathic distress, (2) inductive discipline, and (3) the development of empathic justice—to establish an educational framework. Based on these principles, this research develops three moral education programs: A moral education program through the qualitative transformation of empathic distress A moral education program using inductive discipline A moral education program focusing on the development of empathic justice Each program is tailored to students' developmental stages in elementary, middle, and high school and is aligned with the 2022 revised moral education curriculum standards to ensure applicability in educational settings. Specifically, the elementary school curriculum focuses on empathy training through emotion recognition and compassionate practice, the middle school curriculum emphasizes perspective-taking and social empathy to develop moral judgment, and the high school curriculum strengthens practical moral action by fostering empathic justice and social responsibility. This study demonstrates that moral education based on empathy effectively enhances students’ moral sensitivity, strengthens ethical reasoning, and promotes moral practice. By integrating empathy with moral principles, this approach supports students in developing the capacity to build a just society, distinguishing itself from conventional moral education methods. The findings of this study contribute to establishing a practical direction for empathy-based moral education and serve as foundational research for advancing moral education and expanding empathy training.

Changes of empathy in medical college and medical school students : a longitudinal study

홍민하 경희대학교 대학원 2012 국내석사

Purpose : This study aims to determine the correlation between medical education systems, medical college(MC) and medical school(MS), and empathy by investigating the changes in empathy among students with each additional year of medical education. Methods : The subjects were MC and MS students who had participated in the same study the previous year. All participants completed the same self-report instruments: a questionnaire on sociodemographic characteristics, the Korean edition of the Student Version of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy (JSE-S-K), and the Korean version of the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). Among 334 students, the final analysis was conducted on the data provided by 113 MC and 120 MS students, excluding 101 with incomplete data. Results : The age and sex did not affect the changes in empathy. None of the TCI dimensions were significantly correlated with the changes in empathy scores. When compared with the data collected from the previous year, there was no difference of empathy between MC and MS students. The JSE-S-K scores arose in later year regardless of medical education systems. Empathy increased significantly after one year of medical education. Discussion : The difference between two education systems, MC and MS, did not affect the changes in empathy. Rather these results suggested that the medical education curriculum such as a required course entitled ‘Physicians in Society’ contributes incrementally to empathy. 목적: 본 연구는 의과대학과 의학전문대학원의 학생들이 1년간의 의학교육 후 공감능력의 변화를 알아봄으로써 의학교육 학제와 공감의 연관성을 보고자 하였다. 방법: 1년 전 같은 연구에 참여하였던 의학전문대학원과 의과대학의 학생을 대상으로 하였다. 모든 참가자는 사회인구학적 특징에 대한 설문, 한국판 제퍼슨 공감척도-학생용 (JSE-S-K)과 한국판 기질 및 특성 척도를 시행하였다. 334명의 학생 중, 101명은 자료 부족으로 제외하고 최종분석은 의과대학생 113명, 의학전문대학원생 120명을 대상으로 하였다. 결과: 나이와 성별은 공감능력의 변화에 영향을 미치지 않았다. TCI 소척도들도 공감점수의 변화에 통계적으로 유의미한 결과를 보이지 않았다. 1년 전 자료와 비교할 때, 학제가 공감의 차이 또한 없었다. 의학교육 체제와 상관없이 1년 후, 한국판 제퍼슨 공감척도-학생용 (JSE-S-K) 의 점수는 상승하였다. 공감은 1년간의 의학교육 후 통계적으로 유의미한 증가를 보였다. 결론: 의학교육 학제간의 차이는 공감의 변화에 영향을 미치지 않는 것으로 나타났다. 이러한 결과는 의학교육 기간 중 필수과목인 ‘의사와 사회’라는 과목이 공감에 긍정적인 기여를 하는 것으로 생각된다.