청대 귀주성 청수강 유역 소수민족의 賣田과 裏面契約

박찬근 명청사학회 2024 명청사연구 Vol.- No.61

In the Qing dynasty, where taxes were imposed on landowners based on land units, it was necessary to ascertain the residency status of the owners and the state of land ownership. Therefore, transactions related to land and houses were mandated to be reported to the state. Consequently, Qing dynasty land contracts offer vital insights into the everyday strategies adopted within minority communities, between the state's principles and their modes of agreement. This study focuses on land sale contracts found in the Qingshuijiang Documents , a collection of documents excavated from minority residences in the Qingshuijiang River basin in Guizhou Province. The practices of private transaction contracts transcend the dimension of everyday economic activities and hold significant meanings as expressions of the relationship between the region and the state, and of mutual interaction and trust-building within local communities. This paper analyzes the land sale contracts recorded in the Qingshuijiang Documents to reveal that officially recognized contracts coexist with those based on mutual trust within the community, and sometimes, dual contracts—‘red contract’ and ‘white contract’—were drafted to simultaneously ensure the stability of ownership and maintain the economic value of the transaction items as recognized locally. Additionally, while drafting these dual contracts, the sale price listed in the ‘red contract’ was approximately half of that recorded in the ‘white contract’. This was understood as a measure to reduce the transfer tax payable to the authorities. However, this implies that relying on the sale prices listed in the ‘red contract’ to ascertain the actual land prices at the time may not fully reflect the reality. When creating any economic-related data based on both red and white contracts, the possibility of distortion must be considered. The reliability of the sale prices presented in the ‘red contract’, including the feasibility of compiling any statistics based on them, needs to be reconsidered.

FIDIC 조건을 사용하는 국제건설계약의 준거법 결정과 그 실익

석광현 사법발전재단 2014 사법 Vol.1 No.29

It is widely known that many Korean construction companies have won numerous overseas construction projects since the 1960’s, and it has been reported that the accumulated contract amount of the Korean construction companies all together reached 600 billion US Dollars in December, 2013. If Korea is truly a decent constitutional state, there should have been Korean lawyers whose prestige and reputation are widely acknowledged in the international construction community, which is apparently not the case at the moment. This is probably because the governing laws of the international construction contracts entered into by the Korean construction companies are frequently foreign laws, such as the laws of the state of construction site or English law. It is evident that in order to properly understand the rights and obligations of the parties and accurately assess the legal risks that either party bears, one must first know the contents of the relevant construction contract. In addition, one should know the law applicable to the construction contract and the contents of the applicable law. In this article, I explain principal terms and condition of the standard construction contract conditions drafted by the FIDIC (The International Federation of Consulting Engineers) and discusses various issues resulting from the determination of the law applicable to international construction contracts. In doing so, I will distinguish litigation on the one hand and arbitration on the other, because different choice of law rules are prevailing in litigation and arbitration. The most important principle is the principle of party autonomy in both litigation and arbitration; however, it should be remembered that in certain countries party autonomy is not allowed and parties are mandatorily required to apply the law of the country where the construction site is located. More concretely, I will discuss the following issues: first, the determination of the law applicable to international construction contracts in international litigation (Chapter Ⅱ); secondly, the determination of the law applicable to international construction contracts in international arbitration (Chapter Ⅲ); thirdly, the practical consequences from the determination of the law applicable to international construction contracts (Chapter Ⅳ); fourthly, the limit to party autonomy in international construction contracts; and finally, the internationally mandatory rules (Chapter Ⅴ). I hope that in the future Korean lawyers and practitioners will pay more attention to the various issues of international construction contracts and thereby will be able to accumulate more expertise on the international construction contracts. In this regard, I hope that the sub-committee on the international construction law established in September 2013 under the Korea International Trade Law Association could contribute to the future development of the international construction law in Korea. 주지하는 바와 같이 1960년대 이래 우리 건설사들은 중동 기타 전 세계에 진출하여 수많은 건설공사를 수주하였고 마침내 2013년에는 “대한민국 해외건설 누적수주액 6,000억 달러”를 달성하였다고 한다. 따라서 우리나라가 제대로 된 법치국가라면 지금쯤은 국제건설업계에서 저명한 국제건설계약법의 한국인 전문 법률가도 나왔어야 하나 현실은 그렇지 않다. 이는 아마도 우리 건설사들이 체결하는 국제건설계약의 준거법이 공사지국법 또는 영국법 등 외국법인 경우가 많기 때문일 수도 있다. 그러나 국제건설계약에 따른 당사자들의 권리와 의무, 나아가 각 당사자가 부담하는 법적 위험을 정확히 평가하자면 우선 관련 계약의 내용을 정확히 파악하여야 한다는 점은 명백하다. 그와 함께 당해 계약의 준거법과 그 내용을 정확히 알아야 한다. 여기에서는 국제적으로 널리 이용되는 FIDIC(국제엔지니어링컨설팅연맹, The International Federation of Consulting Engineers)이 작성한 표준계약조건을 중심으로 국제건설계약의 몇 가지 주요 논점을 소개하고, 그와 관련된 준거법의 결정방법과 그에 따른 실익을 검토한다. 그 과정에서 소송과 중재를 나누어 검토하는데 그 이유는 양 영역에서 상이한 준거법 결정원칙이 지배하고 있기 때문이다. 소송이든 중재든 간에 국제계약의 준거법 결정에 있어 가장 중요한 원칙은 당사자자치의 원칙이나, 일부 국가에서는 특히 소송의 경우 당사자자치가 허용되지 않고 공사지국을 반드시 적용해야 한다는 점도 잊지 말아야 한다. 보다 구체적으로 여기에서는 국제소송에서 국제건설계약의 준거법의 결정(Ⅱ.), 국제상사중재에서 국제건설계약의 준거법의 결정(Ⅲ.), 국제건설과 관련된 준거법 결정의 실익(Ⅳ.)과 국제건설계약에서 당사자자치의 한계, 국제적 강행법규의 문제(Ⅴ.)를 차례대로 논의한다. 앞으로는 우리 법률가들과 실무가들도 국제건설계약의 제문제에 대해 좀 더 관심을 가지고 전문성을 축적해 나아가기를 기대해 본다. 2013년 9월 국제거래법학회 산하에 설립된 국제건설법연구회가 그러한 개선에 기여할 수 있기를 희망한다.

국제건설계약에 따른 주요 법률적,실무적 쟁점 ; 국내기업의 FIDIC 이용실태와 유의사항

신현식 ( Hyun Sik Shin ),정수용 ( Su Yong Jung ),최대혁 ( Dae Hyuk Choi ) 국제거래법학회 2013 국제거래법연구 Vol.22 No.1

FIDIC (acronym for its French name Federation Internationale des Ingenieurs Conseils, and its English name is International Federation of Consulting Engineers) produces various international standard forms of contract for construction projects based on the apportionment of risks between an employer and a contractor and the party which will bear the uncertain risks arising out of a construction project. Due to the use increase of the FIDIC contract terms by domestic construction companies, many studies on the terms of the FIDIC standard forms of contract already exist. However, most of the studies consist of the differences in the individual standard forms of contracts and matters to be considered with respect to the management of construction projects or the apportionment of risks, and the number of studies analyzing the legal issues of each of the clauses in the FIDIC contracts appears to be small. The purpose of this article is to examine the matters to be considered when the FIDIC standard forms of contracts are used by Korean construction companies. For such purpose, we have first examined which terms and conditions of the various available FIDIC standard forms of contract should be used based on the current status and use of the FIDIC standard forms of contract by the domestic construction companies, and have then examined the matters to be considered under each of the standard terms and conditions of the FIDIC contracts such as claim, force majeure, defect liability, etc. Moreover, we have sought to enhance the understanding of the FIDIC contracts by performing an analysis on how the FIDIC terms and conditions may be interpreted when such terms and conditions interact with the governing law and the law of the place of arbitration and by conducting a comparison of the relevant clauses in the construction contracts used in Korea and the FIDIC terms and conditions. Although the FIDIC standard terms and conditions are not necessarily directly used in international construction contracts, depending on the type of the construction project, there are a number of cases where the parties would conduct negotiations on the terms and conditions of a contract after selecting the appropriate FIDIC standard terms and conditions, and then to use a modified version of the relevant contract. As such, even if the FIDIC contracts are used, since the number of cases in which the standard terms and conditions are used in their as is and where is condition is small, the special conditions must be thoroughly reviewed. Further, as the governing law, the regulations of the country of construction and the regulations of the expected place of arbitration all interact with each other, such laws and regulations have an impact on the interpretation of the FIDIC contracts. Irrespective of whether the laws of a third country have been selected as the governing law, there may be cases in which the mandatory rules of the country of construction may be applicable even if such cases do not constitute exceptions under which certain provisions of the FIDIC are invalidated. Therefore, it would be desirable, if possible, to confirm with a local legal professional as to whether there exist any mandatory rules which may be in conflict with the FIDIC contracts in the country of construction even in cases where the governing law has been selected through a familiar method, by using the FIDIC standard terms and conditions.

국내기업의 FIDIC 이용실태와 유의사항

정수용,신현식,최대혁 국제거래법학회 2013 국제거래법연구 Vol.22 No.1

FIDIC (acronym for its French name Fédération Internationale des Ingénieurs Conseils, and its English name is International Federation of Consulting Engineers) produces various international standard forms of contract for construction projects based on the apportionment of risks between an employer and a contractor and the party which will bear the uncertain risks arising out of a construction project. Due to the use increase of the FIDIC contract terms by domestic construction companies, many studies on the terms of the FIDIC standard forms of contract already exist. However, most of the studies consist of the differences in the individual standard forms of contracts and matters to be considered with respect to the management of construction projects or the apportionment of risks, and the number of studies analyzing the legal issues of each of the clauses in the FIDIC contracts appears to be small. The purpose of this article is to examine the matters to be considered when the FIDIC standard forms of contracts are used by Korean construction companies. For such purpose, we have first examined which terms and conditions of the various available FIDIC standard forms of contract should be used based on the current status and use of the FIDIC standard forms of contract by the domestic construction companies, and have then examined the matters to be considered under each of the standard terms and conditions of the FIDIC contracts such as claim, force majeure, defect liability, etc. Moreover, we have sought to enhance the understanding of the FIDIC contracts by performing an analysis on how the FIDIC terms and conditions may be interpreted when such terms and conditions interact with the governing law and the law of the place of arbitration and by conducting a comparison of the relevant clauses in the construction contracts used in Korea and the FIDIC terms and conditions. Although the FIDIC standard terms and conditions are not necessarily directly used in international construction contracts, depending on the type of the construction project, there are a number of cases where the parties would conduct negotiations on the terms and conditions of a contract after selecting the appropriate FIDIC standard terms and conditions, and then to use a modified version of the relevant contract. As such, even if the FIDIC contracts are used, since the number of cases in which the standard terms and conditions are used in their as is and where is condition is small, the special conditions must be thoroughly reviewed. Further, as the governing law, the regulations of the country of construction and the regulations of the expected place of arbitration all interact with each other, such laws and regulations have an impact on the interpretation of the FIDIC contracts. Irrespective of whether the laws of a third country have been selected as the governing law, there may be cases in which the mandatory rules of the country of construction may be applicable even if such cases do not constitute exceptions under which certain provisions of the FIDIC are invalidated. Therefore, it would be desirable, if possible, to confirm with a local legal professional as to whether there exist any mandatory rules which may be in conflict with the FIDIC contracts in the country of construction even in cases where the governing law has been selected through a familiar method, by using the FIDIC standard terms and conditions.

淸代 토지거래 관련 제도 정비에 관한 초보적 연구

김한밝 효원사학회 2025 역사와 세계 Vol.67 No.-

전근대 중국에서는 왕토사상을 견지하면서도 사실상 민간 토지 사유가 가능했으며, 중앙정부는 이를 묵인하는 대신 地稅를 징수하는 실리적 방식을 택했다. 이에 따라 정부는 토지 소유 이동을 파악하기 위해 토지거래에 관이 개입하는 稅契의 절차를 제도화하였다. 한편 본래 자율적으로 계약서를 작성해 왔던 민간 측에서도, 그것에 관의 인장을 날인받음으로써 만일의 경우에 대비하고자 하는 수요가 있었다. 이렇듯 稅契 제도는 어느 정도 양자의 이해관계가 맞물려 정착한 것이지만, 여전히 많은 이들은 稅契를 위해 소요되는 비용과 수고를 피하기 위해 계약을 공인받지 않는 쪽을 택했다. 중국사에서 관의 공인을 받은 계약과 그렇지 않은 계약, 즉, 紅契와 白契의 비율은 시기와 지역에 따라 크게 달랐는데, 지금까지는 이를 관과 민의 관계 속에서 이해해 왔다. 그러나 실제로 청대의 토지거래 관련 제도가 정비되어 가는 과정에 초점을 맞춰 보면 또다른 양상이 확인가능하다. 중앙정부는 稅契하지 않을 때 불이익을 안김으로써 민간의 행위자들이 稅契에 나서게 하는 것보다는, 지방관이 계약을 통해 수취한 契稅를 누락없이 올려보내도록 하는 것에 주력하고 있었던 것이다. 까닭에 본연구에서는 기존의 연구에서 설정한 민과 관의 대립 구도에 더하여, 지방 일선의 실무관료인 州縣官을 하나의 요소로 고려하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 필자는 紅契에 필수적으로 부수되어야 할 관 발행의 영수증인 契尾의 존재에 주목하였다. 본디 契尾는 모든 紅契에 첨부되어야 했으나 실제로는 그렇지 못하여, 淸水江文書의 경우 328건의 紅契 가운데 단 1건만에 契尾가 부착되어 있기도 했다. 이것은 논리적으로 정부가 승인한 것이지만, 현실적으로 정부가 파악하고 있지는 않은, 별개의 영역에 위치한 계약들의 존재를 암시한다. 이는 대개 지방관들의 탐장의 결과로 이해되었고, 중앙정부는 이러한 부정행위를 방지하기 위해 토지거래 신고절차를 제도적으로 정비해 나갔지만, 부정을 일소하지는 못했다. 이렇게 청조가 부정 단속에 나서면서도 세수 확보를 위한 발본적인 개혁에 착수하지 못한 것은, 세수를 적어도 관념상에서는 최우선에 두지 않는 유가화한 전근대 중국 정부의 일면으로도 이해할 여지가 있다. In premodern China, while the ideology that all land belonged to the emperor was upheld, private land ownership was effectively allowed. The central government tacitly accepted this, taking a pragmatic approach by collecting land taxes (地稅) instead. To monitor ownership transfers, it institutionalized shuiqi (稅契), a process through which local officials became involved in land transactions. Although contracts were originally drafted privately, many sought official seals to guard against potential disputes. This system emerged from a partial alignment of interests between the state and private individuals. Still, many avoided official certification to escape its costs and inconvenience. The ratio of “red contracts (hongqi 紅契, officially certified contracts)” to “white contracts (baiqi 白契, uncertified contracts)” varied significantly across time and region. Previous research has largely interpreted this phenomenon through the lens of state-private relations. However, focusing on the revision of land transaction regulations during the Qing dynasty reveals another perspective. The central government was less concerned with punishing uncertified transactions and more focused on ensuring local officials accurately reported and remitted the taxes they collected. Building on studies emphasizing state–private tension, this paper considers the position of local administrative officials who managed land affairs on the ground. A key point of analysis is the qiwei (契尾), or “contract tail”—a government-issued receipt meant to accompany all certified contracts. Though legally required, qiwei were often absent. In the Qingshui River Documents (清水江文書), only one of 328 hongqi included a qiwei, suggesting a category of contracts that were formally approved but remained outside actual state oversight. These have often been viewed as tools for local officials to extract illicit gains. Although the central government attempted to eliminate such abuses through procedural reforms, it failed to eradicate them. The Qing state’s reluctance to undertake broader reforms—despite efforts to curb corruption—reflects its Confucianized character: a government that, at least in principle, did not prioritize revenue maximization above all else.

FIDIC Red Book 과 공정위 표준하도급 계약과의 비교 연구

윤철희(Yoon Cheolhee),채일권(Chae Ilkwon) 한국철도학회 2016 한국철도학회 학술발표대회논문집 Vol.2016 No.5

논문은 국제적인 계약조건인 FIDIC Red Book과 한국에서 활용되는 일반적인 단순시공 계약인 공정거래위원회의 전기공사업종 표준하도급 계약을 비교 분석하여, 이를 통해 한국의 하도급 거래질서가 Global Standard에 부합하는 계약으로 확립되도록 하고, 불공정한 하도급 관행 개선에 도움이 될 수 있도록 향후에 개정이 필요한 계약의 조건들을 살펴보았다. 이를 통해 본 논문은 공정거래위원회의 전기공사업종 표준하도급 계약서를 중심으로 계약내용을 분석하고, 이를 FIDIC Red Book과 비교 검토하여 국제계약과 다른 사항을 도출하고, 계약 실무적으로 내용을 보완할 수 있도록 개선방안을 제시하였다. This paper is to comparison study of FIDIC Red book and Korea government agency, Korea Fair Trade commission (FTC)’s standard subcontract. This paper researches comparison study method to compare all of the terms and conditions of two contracts. So this paper suggest to Korea Trade commission (FTC) will be change FIDIC red book’s reasonable subcontract trade practice to improve the subcontract for the compliance with global standard contract in Korea.

Priority Analysis of Dispute Factors in Overseas Construction Based on FIDIC Contract Conditions

최상희,김예상 대한토목학회 2016 KSCE JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Vol.20 No.6

With the globalization of the construction market and the recession in Korea’s construction economy, construction companies in South Korea are extending their business into new international markets. However, there are still more than a few companies that are not making due profits despite the streams of contracts available outside the country. This is because Korean construction companies are undergoing complications in the resolution process of overseas construction claims and disputes. Therefore, the present study examines research from a construction company’s perspective, based on the FIDIC Red Book, a standard form of contract that is typically used overseas for separate bid-based construction contracts. Disputable items were selected through analysis of contract documents and the final dispute factors were derived through literature reviews and interviews with experts. To determine the priority of the dispute factors suggested by the experts who are practically in charge of overseas construction contract management, an FMEA method survey was performed and feedback was received using the Delphi method. Based on the survey results, the priority of dispute factors was analyzed, and the top 10 factors were selected as preeminent key factors for potential improvement and procedural amendment. In addition, this study analyzes whether individual or company system capabilities should be addressed in order to prevent such dispute factors. Based on the findings of this study, it is expected that Korean construction companies will establish strategies to cope with disputes at a corporate level and gain competitiveness in the overseas construction market.

FIDIC 건설표준계약에서 발주자 일방의 공사변경(variations)권한-준거법이 영국법인 상황을중심으로-

정홍식 국제거래법학회 2015 국제거래법연구 Vol.24 No.1

The so called scope of the works, once defined within a construction contract, including the employer’s requirements, specifications, drawings and bills of quantity, may require various alterations to successfully adapt to circumstances and events which were not foreseen in detail. Typically construction contracts provide so called variation clauses allowing the employer unilaterally change the scope, sequence, method or design of the works. By this menas the contract is able to respond to the practical needs of all kinds of projects. In fact, variations to the works are almost inevitable, because of the fact that events and circumstances arise which may be beyond the control of the parties albeit also being caused by them. Thus, the reasons for variations can be manifold. Under a FIDIC contract, variations are covered by clause 13. The clause covers both the authority of the engineer and the employer as well as the procedures for work being added, omitted, or changed from the original contract, either by initiative of the contractor (value engineering) or the initiative of the engineer. Also the extent to which the agreement in terms of price and time for completion will be affected by variation orders is commonly stipulated in detail by the contract. FIDIC forms of contract distinguish between the effects of variations upon time and cost and provide different rules for claims as to extension of time and cost. This article covers in detail FIDIC variation and relevant clauses, including but not limited to concept, extent, and effect of employer’s unilateral variation right, formal requirement of the variation, distinction from site instruction and concessions, agency authority, its relation with demand guarantee, comparison with doctrines of frustration and changed circumstances. Further, this article explores what limitation and restriction can be imposed on employer in exercising such right to vary, including the right to omit a certain part of the works. 국제상사계약의 계약변경(modification)은 계약체결 이후 변경 당시 당사자들 간 합의에 의해 이루어진다. 이러한 형태는 ‘합의에 의한 내용변경’이다. 그런데 해외건설프로젝트에 서 계약변경의 일종인 공사변경(variation)이 발생하는데, 이는 당사자들 간 계약상 합의에 의해 공사도중 발주자가 일방적으로(unilateral) 공사변경권을 행사할 수 있도록 하는 점이 특징이다. 이러한 형태는 ‘합의에 유보된 일방적 변경권’이라 칭할 수 있다. FIDIC 건설표준계약에서 발주자가 공사변경 지시를 내리면 시공자는 그 지시를 따르도록 의무화하고 있으며, 대신 공사변경에 따라 공기에 영향을 미치면 공기연장을 부여받고 계약대금이 증액 될 시 추가공사비를 보상받는 점이 특색이다. 건설공사 도중 계약상 공사범위(scope of works)를 변경하거나 혹은 추가공사를 수행하는 경우는 비일비재하다. 거의 모든 공사에서 공사변경이 발생한다 해도 과언이 아니다. 때문에 국제건설계약 상 공사변경을 둘러싼 발주자와 시공자 간 분쟁은 빠지지 않는 쟁점이다. 이에 본고는 국내 건설사들이 해외건설에서 가장 많이 쓰게 되는 FIDIC 건설표준계약상의 공사변경 조문을 중심으로 그 개념정의부터 출발하여 공사변경 지시가 내려질 수 있는 범위와 형태, 그 지시의 효과 및 결과 등을 중점적으로 살펴본다. 그 다음 공사변경의 법적 성격을 비교법적으로 간략히 조명해 보고, 목적달성불능의 원칙(doctrine of frustration)과 사정변경 원칙과 구분되는 점은 무엇인지 설명한다. 마지막으로 발주자 일방의 공사변경 권한의 제한이 어떤 경우에 가능한지 살펴보고자 하는데, 특히 실무에서 크게 대두되고 있는 발주자의 일부 공사 생략(omission) 권한 및 이의 제한에 관해 살펴보면서 실무적인합의를 짚어본다. 상기 쟁점들에 대해서는 국제건설계약의 준거법으로 많이 지정되는 영국법 관점에서 분석하고 있다.

FIDIC 건설표준계약에서 발주자 일방의 공사변경(variations)권한 -준거법이 영국법인 상황을중심으로-

정홍식 ( Hong Sik Chung ) 국제거래법학회 2015 국제거래법연구 Vol.24 No.1

국제상사계약의 계약변경(modification)은 계약체결 이후 변경 당시 당사자들 간 합의에 의해 이루어진다. 이러한 형태는 ‘합의에 의한 내용변경’이다. 그런데 해외건설프로젝트에서 계약변경의 일종인 공사변경(variation)이 발생하는데, 이는 당사자들 간 계약상 합의에 의해 공사도중 발주자가 일방적으로(unilateral) 공사변경권을 행사할 수 있도록 하는 점이 특징이다. 이러한 형태는 ‘합의에 유보된 일방적 변경권’이라 칭할 수 있다. FIDIC 건설표준계약에서 발주자가 공사변경 지시를 내리면 시공자는 그 지시를 따르도록 의무화하고 있으며, 대신 공사변경에 따라 공기에 영향을 미치면 공기연장을 부여받고 계약대금이 증액될 시 추가공사비를 보상받는 점이 특색이다. 건설공사 도중 계약상 공사범위(scope of works)를 변경하거나 혹은 추가공사를 수행하는 경우는 비일비재하다. 거의 모든 공사에서 공사변경이 발생한다 해도 과언이 아니다. 때문에 국제건설계약 상 공사변경을 둘러싼 발주자와 시공자 간 분쟁은 빠지지 않는 쟁점이다. 이에 본고는 국내 건설사들이 해외건설에서 가장 많이 쓰게 되는 FIDIC 건설표준계약상의 공사변경 조문을 중심으로 그 개념정의부터 출발하여 공사변경 지시가 내려질 수 있는 범위와 형태, 그 지시의 효과 및 결과 등을 중점적으로 살펴본다. 그 다음 공사변경의 법적 성격을 비교법적으로 간략히 조명해 보고, 목적달성불능의 원칙(doctrine of frustration)과 사정변경 원칙과 구분되는 점은 무엇인지 설명한다. 마지막으로 발주자 일방의 공사변경 권한의 제한이 어떤 경우에 가능한지 살펴보고자 하는데, 특히 실무에서 크게 대두되고 있는 발주자의 일부 공사 생략(omission) 권한 및 이의 제한에 관해 살펴보면서 실무적인 합의를 짚어본다. 상기 쟁점들에 대해서는 국제건설계약의 준거법으로 많이 지정되는 영국법 관점에서 분석하고 있다. The so called scope of the works, once defined within a construction contract, including the employer’s requirements, specifications, drawings and bills of quantity, may require various alterations to successfully adapt to circumstances and events which were not foreseen in detail. Typically construction contracts provide so called variation clauses allowing the employer unilaterally change the scope, sequence, method or design of the works. By this menas the contract is able to respond to the practical needs of all kinds of projects. In fact, variations to the works are almost inevitable, because of the fact that events and circumstances arise which may be beyond the control of the parties albeit also being caused by them. Thus, the reasons for variations can be manifold. Under a FIDIC contract, variations are covered by clause 13. The clause covers both the authority of the engineer and the employer as well as the procedures for work being added, omitted, or changed from the original contract, either by initiative of the contractor (value engineering) or the initiative of the engineer. Also the extent to which the agreement in terms of price and time for completion will be affected by variation orders is commonly stipulated in detail by the contract. FIDIC forms of contract distinguish between the effects of variations upon time and cost and provide different rules for claims as to extension of time and cost. This article covers in detail FIDIC variation and relevant clauses, including but not limited to concept, extent, and effect of employer’s unilateral variation right, formal requirement of the variation, distinction from site instruction and concessions, agency authority, its relation with demand guarantee, comparison with doctrines of frustration and changed circumstances. Further, this article explores what limitation and restriction can be imposed on employer in exercising such right to vary, including the right to omit a certain part of the works.

백서의 적출창상에 대한 피하전기자극이 창상수축에 미치는 효과

공광식,김수현,오석,김용남,김태열,Gong, Gwang-Sik,Kim, Su-Hyon,Oh, Seok,Kim, Yong-Nam,Kim, Tae-Youl 대한물리치료학회 2011 대한물리치료학회지 Vol.23 No.1

Purpose: This study investigated the effect of needle electrode stimulation at various frequencies on change in wound healing in excision wound rats Methods: Twenty-four Sprague-Dawley adult male rats were assigned to one of four groups: control (n=6), acupuncture group (n=6), low rate (2 Hz) percutaneous electrical stimulation group, high rate (100 Hz) percutaneous electrical stimulation group (n=6). We analyzed morphological effects by measuring the area of the excision wound, the contraction rate, and chromatic red. A digital camera and an image analysis program were used to measure and analyze the wound area,which was also used for the contraction rate. Chromatic red was obtained by calculating red, green, and blue (RGB) values of the wound area. Results: The electro acupuncture stimulation groupsshowed significant healing effects compared to the control and acupuncture groups. Conclusion: The results of this study showed that various frequencies of percutaneous electrical stimulation have a therapeutic effect on wound healing.