인도양 무역 네트워크와 문명 공간 ― 西海, 西洋, 그리고 西域의 개념을 중심으로 ―

한지선 명청사학회 2017 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.48

This study speculated on the world of the Indian Ocean through terms of 西海(xihai), 西洋(xiyang) and 西域(xiyu). Originally, 西海(xihai) was a term with directionality based on Chinese world view, but it indicates the Mediterranean Sea, the Arabian Sea and the Red Sea as physical space along with cultivation of Silk Road on land. The Indian Ocean was recognized as 西海(xihai) or 西南海(xinanhai) in the Song and Yuan periods. the concept of 서양 has directionality starting from the coastal waters of Fujian and Guangdong, but the concepts of the east and the west that was examined from 『南海志』 published in 大德 years indicate the range central port cities had influence on and is spacial as it covers even religious and ethnic conflicts and cooperation. That is, 西洋(xiyang) indicates the Indian Ocean, but it also means a trade network in this area. The term of 西域(xiyu) is related to appearance of large historical stage. The Islam that began to grow through the Middle Ages was a center of wide historical stage over Europe and Asia under Mongol Empire. The Indian Ocean network was expanded inland and a key factor when it connected different civilizations was reciprocal trade. The Indian Ocean network connected local products each subcategory wanted to import. In particular, cotton which was produced in India was spread over each civilization through trade via the Indian Ocean network. 西域(xiyu) was a wide economic area where different civilizations were linked to guaranty reciprocal trade, not an east-west passage. The Indian Ocean network covered the Arabian Ocean along the western and southern coast of India and connected the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea on land via the Persian Gulf. It connected to the Arabian Ocean along the eastern sea of Africa, which formed a big link. Local products from East Asian products via large and small islands on the Indian Ocean, India, Java and Srivijaya empire were accumulated on this central link. It also connected Arabia, Asia Minor, the western and northern area of Africa, Iberia, India, West India and Yunnan civilizations. Port cities of each civilization were converged in a big link of the Indian Ocean while leading area of subcategories by connecting hinterlands. The term of 西洋(xiyang) was used when Chinese people explored such Indian trade networks and joined in them through the oceans. Important passages to the Indian Ocean were Guang-zhou and Ch'uan-zhou. They developed greatly as big cities that had China and East Asia as hinterlands.

15세기 명・티무르제국 간의 조공무역과 인도양 교역 네트워크 ― 중국 문헌자료에 나타난 세계화의 단상 ―

한지선 명청사학회 2020 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.54

This paper aimed to examine the aspect of globalization, giving a focus on the issues of the lion tribute and the return through the sea route in the 19th reign year of Chenghua(成化). The issues of Timurid envoy's tribute and return through the sea route are able to be approached from the perspective of circulation of goods and information in the trade network of the Indian Ocean. In fact, the lion tribute incident in 1483 was not a diplomatic ritual but a trade act that was led only by Paryukwan, who understood the Eurasian trade network and the tribute compensation manual. In addition, the government's recognition of Paliuwan’s returning via Malacca is seen as a clue that the Ming government also understood that there was close exchange between the West Region(西域) and the ‘West Ocean(西洋)’ and did not set institutional restriction on it. The problem of the Timurid envoys' qualification was often pointed out from the Yongle(永樂) years. In fact, although tribute was a solemn ritual in East Asia, when it was seen from the point of view of merchants in Central Asia, tribute trade was one of the commercial activities that brought enormous profits. They were allowed to present the tribute by joining the envoy, and if not, they could trade their goods in the Ganzhou(甘州) and Suzhou(肅州) areas. Under the relationship between Ming and Timurid, merchants took advantage of diplomatic procedures or rituals to participate in tribute trade, and even when the unified power did not exist in inland Asia in the late 15th century, they approached China in an autonomous and common trade way. Inland envoys did seldom meet the diplomatic rituals that the Ming proposed or violated relevant regulations. Emissaries might not be real messengers as Ming's conservative officials suspected. However, they brought diverse goods including gold, silver, and jewelry from India, Arab, the Indian Ocean and even Africa. Even, items such as 鑌鐵刀, 鎖服, 撒哈剌, and 水晶椀 were overlapped with the tributes given by Calicut or Malacca. In addition, rose perfumes and glass products were produced and distributed throughout Europe and Asia These Timurid tribute lists showed that the Indian Ocean's maritime trade network linked by monsoons was connected to Europe, Africa, Central Asia, East Asia and even grasslands. The commercial achievements of Southeast Asia in the 1450s or 1500s are not denied, but the achievement of the sea is often confined to the sea. However, when the tribute list was looked at, it was understood that commercial energy of the trade network created by interaction between inland and coastal areas was transferred to deep inland areas such as Europe, West Asia, India, China, Russia and the Mongolian grasslands.

15세기 명-말래카의 관계와 인도양 교역 네트워크 ― 상품교환에서 나타나는 특징을 중심으로 ―

한지선 명청사학회 2023 명청사연구 Vol.- No.59

In the 15th century, Malacca was an international trading market where dealt a large amount of goods in wholesale. According to Chinese historical source, the name Gara(哥羅) or Karabusara(哥羅富沙羅) can be identified with Malacca. This area may have controlled the Strait of Malacca incompletely for the trade which had been linking Bengal region with the South China Sea direction. In particular, this place is identified as ‘Koli’, which is known as a tin producing area in Persian sources, but when the Srivijaya and Chola controlled in South East Asia in the 11~13centuries, this place was as a small city dependent on the Bengal economy. However, increasing trade demands, especially from the West Indian Ocean, and the emergence of Muslim traders in Southeast Asia, Malacca had set the staged at a new leap forward. It is is significant that the Ming approved Malaca as a independent state by formal ritual and Malacca had access to the Malabar coast beyond the Bengal economy about 1403. With Zhenghe(鄭和)’s expedition toward the Indian Ocean, Malacca dominated the East China Sea and secured a trade network extending west to India. This means that Malacca had three seas as its ‘hinterland’, including Bengal's economy, and China. And It could also be said that Indian Ocean's commodity network was integrated into the Malacca It is clear that the reason why Malacca had competitiveness was that it secured key strategic products from both China and India. In the relationship between Ming and Malacca, ‘tribute system’ was not interpreted in terms of Confucian rites or values, but seems more obvious when approached from a commercial perspective. In the late 15th century, exchanges between China and Malacca seemed irregular, but at this time, Malacca, which had have its own naval power, absorved Chinese goods through Java and Ryukyu, where trades and contributing with China were active and through smuggled trade in coastal areas of China. It still maintained its status as a China's outport on the Indian Ocean trade.

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea : A Network Approach

SELAND, Eivind Heldaas The Asian Association of World Historians 2016 The Asian review of world histories Vol.4 No.2

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is a Roman period guide to trade and navigation in the Indian Ocean. Justly famous for offering a contemporary and descriptive account of early Indian Ocean trade, the work has been subject to and a point of departure for numerous studies. Its extensive influence on scholarship is, however, also problematic, as it reflects the limited information and cultural and personal bias of its unknown author. Arguably this might have led scholars to overemphasise so-called western or Roman participation in early Indian Ocean trade. Network analysis allows us to map, visualize and measure interconnectedness in the Periplus Maris Erythraei. Many of these connections are not explicitly mentioned in the text, but by connecting not only places with places, but also products with places that export and import them, we get a partly different impression of Indian Ocean trade from that conventionally gathered from the Periplus. It allows us to ask questions about the relationship between coastal cabotage and transoceanic shipping, to identify regional trading circuits, and unexpected centres of long-distance exchange.

『혼일강리역대국도지도(混一疆理歷代國都之圖)』상에 비친 인도양 내비게이션 - 대륙 조각들의 배치 맥락을 중심으로 -

한지선(Han, Ji-Seon) 동양사학회 2024 동양사학연구 Vol.169 No.-

This study aimed to seek the place names of the areas that were transcribed as islands located in the Indian Ocean at the 『Gangrido』 and understand the arrangement context. To serch for the place names, this study investigated Chinese historical materials and travel records of diverse cultural zones and intended to interpret them according to the capital names of corresponding areas. As a result, it seemed that Nobal(奴發) and Seohyol(西穴) were originated from the names of the Nabhanis and the Scier of South Arabia. It was assumed that Ari(阿里) was from the transliteration of Ali and in particular, it was from the Sanaa under the influence of the Shia Ismaili among Yemen powers. Accordingly, Marongsa(麻龍沙), Noam(奴啱), Mahaphapsuk(馬合哈叔) and Happala(合八牙) as the names of the islands could be interpreted as Malindi, Nubia, Cairo and Alexandria. Cairo was as the capital of the Fatimids who belonged to the Shia Ismaili Family, controlled the business networks connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Red Sea from the 10th century to the 12th century. Therefore, it was assumed that the places named islands were parts of the continent and arrangement of the pieces, the South India, the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, the east coast of Kenya, Cairo and Alexandria of the Africa was understood as the merchant networks that actively worked at the Colas and the Fatimids.<BR/> For one thing, the part of the continent was named as islands as geographical knowledge was accumulated through sailing. The cases that inland and peninsula were misunderstood as islands were shown both in Islamic and Chinese data in the 12th and 13th centuries. In comparison with the world map of Idrisi, the Gangrido presented more specific and exact and newer information on South India and Bengal Sea. The characteristic was inherited to the 『Zenghe Chart(鄭和航海圖)』. It indicates that the two charts were from the same family. For acknowledging the existence of the Indian Sea Chart before the 『Zenghe Chart』, the trace could be found in the pieces of continent in the 『Ganglido』. The other focus was given on the fact that the continent pieces were influenced by Monsoon season. It was assumed that the geographical concept in respect Monsoon season was inherited from geographical recognition of Persian people in considering of etymology of ‘land above wind’ and ‘land below wind’. Accordingly, it is considered that geographical information on maritime affairs was originated from geographical recognition of Persia and that the pieces of continent were based on that Monsoon what was the most important factor to make the world of the Indian Ocean organized as trade network. At that time, South India, Arab and East African Coast worked as an important bridge to connect and a gate to the world. That is, it is concluded that the pieces of continent in respect to maritime affairs reflected trade networks formed as sailing routines and independent sailing navigation of merchants who worked at the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.

Commodity Flows, Diaspora Networking, and Contested Agency in the Eastern Indian Ocean c. 1000–1500

Kenneth R. Hall 서강대학교 동아연구소 2016 TRaNS(Trans –Regional and –National Studies of Sou Vol.4 No.2

Recent revisionist approaches to early pre-1500 eastern Indian Ocean history draw from and cross-reference epigraphic, archaeological, art historical, literary, cultural, textual, shipwreck, and a variety of other primary and secondary sources as these document the evolution of Southeast Asia from roughly 300 to 1500, before significant European regional presence became a factor. This study’s focus is the transitional importance ofc. 1000–1500 Indian Ocean international maritime trade and transit from the South Asian shorelines ofthe Bay of Bengal to the South China and Java Seas, which is conceived to have temporarily produced an inclusive eastern Indian Ocean zone ofcontact. In this then ‘borderless’ region there were a variety of meaningful contacts and material, cultural, and knowledge transfers that resulted in synthesis of Indian, Chinese, Middle Eastern, and Southeast Asian cultures and populations made possible by enhanced international maritime trade connections before European presence became a factor, a period often dated from the fall of Melaka to the Portuguese in 1511.

The Indian Ocean Scenario in the 14th Century Latin Crusade Tract: Possibilities of a World Historical Approach

Chakravarti, Ranabir The Asian Association of World Historians 2015 The Asian review of world histories Vol.3 No.1

The paper examines, in the light of current historiography, the recent trends in the application and applicability of the World Historical studies on the Indian Ocean scenario. Calling for the combination of the breadth of the World Historical studies with the analysis of a historical scenario in its specific spatio-temporal context-instead of a synchronic approach-the present study takes a close look at commerce and politics in the western Indian Ocean in the light of an early 14th century Latin Crusade tract, How to Defeat the Saracens by William of Adam (Guillelmus Ade, Tractatus quomodo Sarraceni sunt expugnandi), a Dominican friar. The text offers remarkable insights into the interlocking of the Indian Ocean and the South Asian subcontinent with the Mamluk Sultanate, the Ilkhanid realm and the Crusades. The paper argues for what is now termed as braided and connected histories.

Deeper Integration or Open Regionalism in the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA): A CGE Approach

Abdallah Akintola(Abdallah Akintola ),Houcine Boughanmi(Houcine Boughanmi ),Alessandro Antimiani(Alessandro Antimiani ),Lokman Zaibet(Lokman Zaibet ),Hemesiri Kotagama(Hemesiri Kotagama ) 세종대학교 경제통합연구소 2022 Journal of Economic Integration Vol.37 No.4

The Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) is a regional association based on the principle of open regionalism to promote liberalization through trade and investment facilitation. This study compares two main scenarios with the ingredients of a deeper regional integration compared to the IORA's present open regionalism status. Scenario I evaluates the effects of gradual tariff cuts on IORA, while Scenario II combines the impact of tariff cuts, non-tariff measures (NTM) reduction, and trade facilitation. A recent recursive dynamic model, called Global Trade Analysis Project recursive dynamic model (GTAP-RD), was used to understand the adjustment path. The result shows welfare gain for a ll IORA countries when a t rade liberalization involving tariff cuts is complemented with NTM reduction and trade facilitation. In addition, the “NTM spillover” effect on some non-IORA members (the rest of Gulf Cooperation Council, the rest of Greater Arab Free Trade Agreement, and the United Kingdom) was observed. The results suggest that IORA has more to gain if it involves a deeper regional integration than the present form of open regionalism.

면(綿)의 세계사와 근대문명

이영석 ( Young Suk Lee ) 영국사학회 2015 영국연구 Vol.34 No.-

Giorgio Riello makes an effort to understand the formation of the modern world through the history of cotton in his recent work, Cotton: The Fabric that Made the Modern World (2013). The most important change in the history of cotton appeared during the transitional age from the centrifugal world-system initiated by India to the modern centripetal one. He emphasizes the role of Indian Ocean trade and Indian handicraft in the process. In an attempt to overcome the existing Eurocentric perspective, he answers the question of how the world changed Lancashire rather than ‘how Lancashire changed the world’. Some historians who have emphasized the dominance of the English cotton industry attach importance to spinning and weaving. According to these historians, this dominance was due to the mechanization of the two processes. In constrast to this view, Riello contends that the competitiveness of Indian cotton textiles stemmed not only from the skills of spinning and weaving but from the excellence of the finishing process and printing. The excellent reputation Indian cotton enjoyed was based upon its color and design. English cotton manufacturers underwent a long process in order to learn the soft knowledge and skills from Indian cotton textiles and handicraft industry. According to Riello, Britain`s Industrial Revolution was greatly influenced by the Indian Ocean trade and furthermore, by Indian traditions and knowledge. The purpose of this paper is to present Riello`s view on the formation of the modern world, and to examine whether his views would supplement existing interpretations of the Industrial Revolution.

21st Century Maritime Power-Politics in the Indian Ocean Region with Special Reference to the Bay of Bengal

Mohd Aminul Karim 인하대학교 국제관계연구소 2017 Pacific Focus Vol.32 No.1

The aim of this paper is to project the emerging power-relations in the maritime realm between geopolitical players in the Indian Ocean region. These power-relations involve military shields and spears, infrastructure development, alignment–alliance relations, international trade routes, critical choke points, energy, and above all geopolitical implications. The methods followed in the paper are content analysis, case-method, interview, observation, and so forth. The paper concludes that emerging power polarizations are visible and are gradually taking a tangible shape in the form of military–economic condominium, presumably coming from opposite directions.