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정동훈 명청사학회 2013 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.40
This paper basically examines the types of travel and identification documents for official foreign envoys at the Chinese borders and the principles of the international order that the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) tried to establish in East Asia. This research further defines and illustrates the term so-called ‘inter-state system’ in East Asia between the late fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries. After the foundation of the Ming dynasty, frequent visits of foreign delegations gradually became a political and financial burden to the Ming court. Consequently, the Chinese court decided to impose a strict sea blockade and allow only the official tributary envoys to set foot on Chinese soil. When the foreign envoys arrived at the border, they had to prove that they were officially sent by their country. There were several kinds of credentials used when they went through the entry procedure such as tally, part of official seal or documentation, called kamhap (勘合), to be matched with another part of the seal or document for authenticity (for envoys from Japan and Southeast Asia) or an imperial warrant, called kongch’ik (貢勅), issued by the Ming court (for envoys from Mongol and Jurchen tribal groups) or an official warrant, called ch’ach’a (差箚), issued by the Chosǒn court (for Korean envoys). There were only fifteen states which received the official identification kamhap from Ming China. The rulers of these foreign states also all commonly received a Chinese investiture. That is, the Ming court guaranteed the rulers of the selected neighboring states not only political authority but also economic interests by granting exclusive rights to monopolize trade with China. On the other hand, the rulers were obligated to control and intercept illegal diplomatic and trade activities within their territory. In other words, as the Ming court could not directly intervene in all of the neighboring regions, they selected some subordinate partner states and granted them a political and economic privilege, as well as a duty to maintain stable international order. Ming China accepted the diplomatic travel documents issued by the Chosǒn court unlike other foreign states. It was because China shared the same writing and document management systems with Korea. The Chosǒn also never pursued economic interests in their relationship with Ming China. Additionally, the Chosǒn court was strong enough to prevent any problem of diplomatic imposters (wisa, 僞使) and fabricate Chosǒn diplomatic credentials. More significantly, Chosǒn was seen as a model and ideal foreign state by Ming China based on these distinguishing points. Ming China wanted to establish the ‘states’ ruled by kings in their surrounding regions and admitted the selected polities—only in the form of state—as their negotiation partner. With a Chinese investiture and official travel and identification documents, the Ming granted the selected neighboring states exclusive rights and imposed duties on them at the same time in their relationship with China. After all, the Ming court and the rulers of such recognized foreign states could only become the main agents of negotiation between the states in East Asia. Ultimately, this paper brings the term ‘inter-state system’ to describe the characteristics of Ming China’s foreign relationship with neighboring states, as well as the uniqueness of the Chosǒn dynasty in the ‘inter-state system’ in East Asia. These are all the central propositions to which this paper is devoted.
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