论香港本土主义的流变及其公法应对

Lai Pui Man,Tan Yinhao 사단법인 코리아컨센서스연구원 2019 분석과 대안 Vol.3 No.1

Throughout history, there are three clues of dualistic structures for the development of Hong Kong’s nativism. First, inward attribution and outward lookingare two paths to the formation of Hong Kong’s nativism. In the dualistic framework of “self-others”, nativism is formed. The formation path of “outward looking”can be seen everywhere in the construction history of Hong Kong’s nativism. It is under the reflection of “two mirrors” with Britain and Chinese mainland that Hong Kong people acquire the concept of “Hong Kong’s nativism”. Second, there are two aspects of Hong Kong’s nativism: economic and cultural aspect and political aspect. With the gradual development of Hong Kong’s history, these two aspects come into being and are closely bound up, thus constituting Hong Kong’s nativism today. The third clue is the most critical one. The subjectivity of colonization and decolonization are two different forms of Hong Kong people’s subjectivity. These three clues run through the whole process of the construction of Hong Kong nativism, and are carried out in three stages of development: “Origin (1960s-1970s): Preliminary Construction of Hong Kong’s Nativism”, “Development of Hong Kong’s Nativism (1980s-1997): Awakening of Political Aspect” and “Formation and Alienation of Hong Kong’s Nativism (1997-present): Deformed “decolonization”. Along the evolution of Hong Kong’s nativism, with the disintegration of colonialism, Hong Kong people have gradually transited from the subjectivity of colonization to the subjectivity of decolonization, but the process of “decolonization” has not been completed up to now. When nativism loses its native complex from the perspective of “inherent in China”, and further develops into the “separatism” of anti-constitutional system and anti-national continuity and unity, it will challenge the stability of the relationship between the central government and the Special Administrative Region under the “one country, two systems”. At the same time, it will have a greater impact on the political structure and the rule of law system of Hong Kong, and trigger a series of public law problems that need to be solved urgently. In this regard, on the one hand, we should re-clarify the relationship between the central government and the region under the “one country, two systems” in light of the new situation of democratic political development in Hong Kong, and improve Hong Kong’s governance mechanism on the basis of the constitution and the basic law; on the other hand, we should actively learn from the German defensive democracy system to systematically interpret, integrate and apply Hong Kong’s existing legal resources so as to effectively curb the development of local separatist forces.

홍콩 현대시의 도시재현과 모더니즘

박남용 세계문학비교학회 2023 세계문학비교연구 Vol.84 No.-

이 논문은 홍콩 현대시에 나타난 도시재현 양상을 통해 시인들의 도시 인식과 홍콩 도시시 의 모더니즘적 특징을 분석한 것이다. 홍콩은 동아시아 도시 공간 속에서 매우 특수한 공간으 로, 식민지와 탈식민의 역사를 갖고 있다. 그뿐만 아니라, 서구 자본주의와 중국 사회주의 두 체제의 충돌과 갈등이 끊임없이 야기되고 있는 도시 공간이기도 하다. 홍콩이란 도시 공간이 홍콩 시인들의 시선 속에 어떻게 시적 대상이 되었으며, 홍콩 도시시를 형성하고 발전시켰는 지 이해해 보고자 한다. 홍콩의 현대시는 1920년대 중후반부터 중국 신문학 운동의 영향과, 상징파·신월파·현대파 시인들의 영향을 받으며 발전하였다. 홍콩의 근대적인 문학 잡지들이 발간되며 리위중과 리신뤄 같은 홍콩 태생의 시인들을 중심으로 시가 창작이 이루어졌다. 그 리고 1950-60년대 이래 마랑과 예쓰를 비롯한 새로운 시인들에 의해 홍콩의 도시시가 창작되 었다. 홍콩에서의 이러한 도시 문학에 기반한 도시시의 발전은 모더니즘 시문학을 발전시키 며 중국의 사회주의적 현실주의 시문학과는 다른 양상을 보여주었다. 본고에서는 홍콩의 주 요 시인들의 대표적인 도시시를 분석하며, 그들의 도시시에서의 모더니즘적 특성들과 도시가 재현되는 양상들을 몇 가지로 파악해 보았다. 그들은 홍콩의 지명과 거리를 배경으로 시를 창작하며 도시 공간과 문화에 대한 새로운 사물 이미지를 묘사하고 있음을 알 수 있었다. 그 와 더불어 그들은 도시 근대화와 산업화에 따른 주택과 환경 등 각종 사회 문제를 비판적으로 고찰하며 새로운 생태적 사유를 모색하고 있음을 파악할 수 있었다. 홍콩의 도시시 속에는 홍콩 발전과 반환에 따른 홍콩과 홍콩인들의 정체성 문제가 크게 나타났으며, 도시 공간 속의 개인의 불안과 우울, 그리고 고독과 적막감 등 각종 인간 소외 현상이 나타났다. 따라서 그들 의 도시시 창작은 이러한 개인의 현대적 일상세계에 대한 시적 정서를 표현했다고 할 수 있으며, 홍콩인들의 도시 인식을 통해 홍콩인들의 정체성을 확인할 수 있었다. This study examines Hong Kong’s modernist urban poetry, focusing on urban space issues and representation aspects. Hong Kong is a representative city in East Asia, with a history of colonization and decolonization. It explores how Hong Kong’s urban space became a poetic object for Hong Kong poets and how its urban poetry was formed and developed. The study aims to understand the complex relationship between Western capitalism and Chinese socialism in Hong Kong’s urban poetry. Hong Kong’s modern poetry emerged in the mid-to-late 1920s, influenced by the Chinese newspaper movement and Symbolist, New Moon, and Modernists. Poets like Li Yu Zhong and Li Xin Ruo contributed to the development of Hong Kong’s modern literary magazines. Since the 1950s and 1960s, new poets like Ma Lang and Ye Si have contributed to the development of urban poetry in Hong Kong. These poets portrayed new object images of urban space and culture, focusing on geographical names and streets of Hong Kong. They also analyzed social issues like housing and environment following urban modernization and industrialization. The urban poetry of Hong Kong reflects the identity problems of Hong Kong and its people, as well as individual anxiety and depression in urban space. Additionally, human alienation phenomena like solitude and desolation emerged. The creation of urban poetry reflects the poetic sentiments of modern individuals about the everyday world of the city, confirming the identity for Hong Kong through the city consciousness of Hong Kong people.

후식민의 주체로서 국가와 본토 ― 중국-홍콩의 경우

유영하 한국중국현대문학학회 2012 中國現代文學 Vol.0 No.63

Now or never is the time for Chinese nationalism and Hong Kong locality to establish a new paradigm of mutual relation. The relationship between nation and locality is based on the work of finding the value representing Hong Kong’s identity. I think that locality Hong Kong is considered as a ‘ethnic minorities(少數民族)’in Chinese nationalism. Hong Kong’s identity actually has been formed from political and economic transformation. The break-up of Hong Kong's identity also depends on the politics and economics. During British colonial period politics substituted for administration, post-handover Hong Kong politics substitutes for economics. Hong Kong people’s self-respect, base of locality Hong Kong comes from a rationality and locality Hong Kong has an extremely importance mission of breaking away from ‘sincizing(中國化)’. Han (漢) people-oriented nationalism which applies to Hong Kong will continue unless something major comes up. Locality Hong Kong means Hong Kong’s identity. Locality has original conservatism,pre-modernity such as blood relations. The Modernity should precede Hong Kong’s identity is an early conclusion of postcolonial description and a solution of identity discourse.

论香港本土主义的流变及其公法应对

Man, Lai Pui,Yinhao, Tan Korea Consensus Institute(KCI) 2019 Analyses & alternatives Vol.3 No.1

Throughout history, there are three clues of dualistic structures for the development of Hong Kong's nativism. First, inward attribution and outward lookingare two paths to the formation of Hong Kong's nativism. In the dualistic framework of "self-others", nativism is formed. The formation path of "outward looking"can be seen everywhere in the construction history of Hong Kong's nativism. It is under the reflection of "two mirrors" with Britain and Chinese mainland that Hong Kong people acquire the concept of "Hong Kong's nativism". Second, there are two aspects of Hong Kong's nativism: economic and cultural aspect and political aspect. With the gradual development of Hong Kong's history, these two aspects come into being and are closely bound up, thus constituting Hong Kong's nativism today. The third clue is the most critical one. The subjectivity of colonization and decolonization are two different forms of Hong Kong people's subjectivity. These three clues run through the whole process of the construction of Hong Kong nativism, and are carried out in three stages of development: "Origin (1960s-1970s): Preliminary Construction of Hong Kong's Nativism", "Development of Hong Kong's Nativism (1980s-1997): Awakening of Political Aspect" and "Formation and Alienation of Hong Kong's Nativism (1997-present): Deformed "decolonization". Along the evolution of Hong Kong's nativism, with the disintegration of colonialism, Hong Kong people have gradually transited from the subjectivity of colonization to the subjectivity of decolonization, but the process of "decolonization" has not been completed up to now.When nativism loses its native complex from the perspective of "inherent in China", and further develops into the "separatism" of anti-constitutional system and anti-national continuity and unity, it will challenge the stability of the relationship between the central government and the Special Administrative Region under the "one country, two systems". At the same time, it will have a greater impact on the political structure and the rule of law system of Hong Kong, and trigger a series of public law problems that need to be solved urgently. In this regard, on the one hand, we should re-clarify the relationship between the central government and the region under the "one country, two systems" in light of the new situation of democratic political development in Hong Kong, and improve Hong Kong's governance mechanism on the basis of the constitution and the basic law; on the other hand, we should actively learn from the German defensive democracy system to systematically interpret, integrate and apply Hong Kong's existing legal resources so as to effectively curb the development of local separatist forces.

한국의 홍콩문학 연구 - 2000년부터 2018년까지

손미령 ( Son Mi Ryung ) 세계문학비교학회 2018 세계문학비교연구 Vol.65 No.-

Hong Kong has been considered a part of China along with Taiwan and many parts of its culture and literature have been outside the mainstream. There are different opinions about the start of literature in Hong Kong, but the scholars of Hong Kong and Mainland China believe it started between 1874 and 1970 and the Korean scholars argue that it was between the 1920s and the 1980s. However, the study of modern literature of Hong Kong actually began when the People's Republic of China was reformed and opened in 1979. The literary activities of Hong Kong were actively promoted by various organizations in the early 1980s after the return of Hong Kong and the study of literature increased gradually. The study of literature of Hong Kong in Korea began with theses for journals in 2000 and a total of 10 dissertations and 40 academic theses have been presented so far. The study of literature of Hong Kong in Korea has the following characteristics. It is divided into thematic and genre aspects. on the subject first, it is the return of Hong Kong and the identity of Hong Kong. Hong Kong has a long history of immigration. Its identity is characterized by pursuit of change as a place of refuge. Second, it is the urbanism and Diaspora of Hong Kong. Hong Kong has a unique character and the Diaspora that has left the city to miss the city has a special view of Hong Kong. The following is the genre of literature. first, it is a Hong Kong literary genre. The literature of Hong Kong can be classified into novels, poems, and essays. The novels of Yong Kim and the dramatized films of his novels were highly popular, thus many studies have been conducted on Yong Kim in Korea. Second, it is the films of Hong Kong. Hong Kong movies were loved by people. Movie research is characterized primarily by the social and cultural aspects of film directors, actors and movies.

‘소수’로서의 홍콩인

류영하 한국중국현대문학학회 2014 中國現代文學 Vol.0 No.71

Even after the significant decrease in Hong Kong’s politicalindependence following the transfer of its sovereignty from theUnited Kingdom to the People's Republic of China, Hong Kong isstill regarded globally as an independent nation under the name of“Hong Kong Special Administrative Region” and has beenguaranteed political and economic autonomy for 50 years under“One country, two systems.” Upon closer analysis, there is an evenclearer contrast between ‘the Majority’–China, and ‘the Minority’–Hong Kong. From a cultural neuroscience perspective, it isinevitable that the people of Hong Kong will establish a newidentity and culture through conflicts with China. Just as identity,henceforth defined as “-ness,” is not fixed but changes constantly,“Hong Kong-ness” is also a changing concept. Recognizing that“-ness” is developed through education, training, and transmissionof ideas, we explore the concept of “we-ness” ― the Chinese-HongKong identity ― as a direct result of brain plasticity and thecurrent relations between China and Hong Kong. Since the handover, Hong Kong people have been indoctrinated with the “nation” of China in their brains through consistentefforts of the Chinese government and authorities. Defining brainplasticity as “the ability of the brain to modify the original conceptof “-ness” to a new “-ness”,” the “nation” of China has beenaffecting the brain plasticity of the Hong Kong people. When theindoctrination of the “people of the nation of China” for Hong Kongis complete, “Hong Kong-ness” as an identity will disappear. Ademand of “Sinocentrism,” “nationality,” “nation,” and “China-ness”from mainland China is being created and pushed in Hong Kong,belittling the Hong Kong culture. Historically, a dominant cultureof the majority of people has always belittled the minority, oreaker, culture. An intervention of Chinese nationalism in HongKong is leading to a rise in Hong Kong localism, a “HongKong-ness” that is as diverse as the country’s immigration history. However, since China regained sovereignty over Hong Kong, the“nation” of China has not allowed the two countries’ identities tocoexist in peace. Is there room for compromise between“China-ness” and “Hong Kong-ness”?

영화 <무간도無間道> 시리즈와 홍콩의 정체성 문제

신동순 한국중문학회 2020 중국문학연구 Vol.0 No.81

This paper tries to follow the movie gaze of the three films of the “Infernal Affairs” series, tracing the “Time” and “Memories” of the main characters Chen Yong-yin and Yu Jian-ming to ask and interpret Hong Kong’s identity. Where are the points of discussion in the movie “Infernal Affairs” series? Hong Kong “return” from the United Kingdom on July 1, 1997, What will Hong Kong, which has been “returned” to China, look like again between China and Britain? How does Hong Kong’s character manifest itself? Attention is paid to the relationship between China and Hong Kong in the boundaries of 1991, 1995, 1997 and 2002, the ‘time’ in the film, and the identity of Hong Kong that appears in the process. Hong Kong, which experienced British colonial history, shows psychological signs of joy and anxiety in the process of returning to China in 1997. In particular, the protagonists Chen Yong-yin and Yu Jian-ming wanted to restore (or reject) their identities, but were placed in an infernal state. The psychology of the two spies, Chen Yong-yin and Yu Jian-ming, represents tension and nervousness, anxiety and confusion, violence and division as police officers and members of the organization. Chen Yong-yin represents Hong Kong in the ‘97’ era and post ‘97’ era by showing death and Yu Jian-ming showing mental division. Think about the meaning of ‘Hong Kong’ through the reversal of identity. I would like to think about what the recovery of Hong Kong’s lost ‘Hong Kong identity’, ‘Hong Kong Consciousness’ and ‘Hong Kongness’ will be in the midst of problems of Hong Kong’s return and return. 본 논문은 <무간도> 시리즈 3편의 영화 시선을 따라가며 주인공 진영인과 유건명의 ‘시간’과 ‘기억’을 추적해 홍콩의 정체성에 대한 질문과 해석을 진행하고자 한다. 영화 <무간도> 시리즈의 발화 지점들은 어디인지, 1997년 7월 1일 영국으로부터 ‘회귀’한 홍콩, 중국으로 ‘반환’된 홍콩이 중국과 영국 사이에서 어떤 홍콩의 모습을 재현되는지, 그 홍콩성은 또 어떻게 발현되는지, 영화 속 ‘시간’인 ‘1991년’, ‘1995년’, ‘1997년’, ‘2002년’이라는 경계에서 홍콩(진영인과 유건명들)의 발화 지점, 홍콩과 중국의 관계, 그 과정에서 나타나는 홍콩의 정체성에 주목한다. 영국 식민지로 역사화되었던 홍콩은 1997년 중국으로 반환되고 회귀하는 과정에서 불완전한 환희와 긴장, 불안과 분열의 병적 징후들을 보인다. 특히 주인공인 진영인과 유건명은 신분을 회복(혹은 거절)하고 전환하는 과정에서 무간지옥의 상황을 직면한다. 진영인과 유건명 두 스파이는 경찰인 동시에 조직원으로, 조직원인 동시에 경찰로 심리적 긴장과 초조, 불안과 혼란, 폭력과 분열을 경험한다. 영화들은 진영인이 죽음으로, 유건명은 정신적 환영과 분열을 일으키며 ‘97’시대와 포스트 ‘97’시대의 홍콩을 재현한다. 진영인과 유건명의 신분(정체성)의 역전과 도치 상황을 통해 ‘홍콩’의 위치, 그 신분의 반환과 회귀 문제 속에서 ‘홍콩성’, ‘홍콩의식’이 어떻게 상실되고 회복을 시도하는지 사유해 보고자 한다.

중국의 일국양제와 홍콩의 민주화: 중화 애국심과 홍콩 본토화

김진호 현대중국학회 2020 현대중국연구 Vol.22 No.1

The Hong Kong people started living in the Opium War in 1840 and lived in Hong Kong like the West on the mainland. Hong Kong has a different political, administrative, and economic system than China or the United Kingdom. For this reason, the question of whether a Hong Kong person is Chinese is difficult to judge by nationality and lifestyle. People in Hong Kong changed their internal and external status from the British Hong Kong passport in 1997 to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR) passport of the People’s Republic of China. And they think they are the owner of Hong Kong. The democracy they claim will be Hong Kong people’s with autonomy. However, from the standpoint of the Chinese government that restored Hong Kong, Hong Kong is China’s territory and Hong Kong residents become a part of Chinese citizens. In this respect, we cannot guarantee whether the One country Two systems can solve the democratization movement of Hong Kong. In other words, even if the system is not completed until 2047, Hong Kong’s Chineseization is likely to accelerate further, and the democratization movement of Hong Kong residents is expected to continue. This is because the democratization of Hong Kong is attributed to the spirit of “Loving Hong Kong” of Hong Kong residents. However, the Chinese government’s interference and integration with Hong Kong is expected to accelerate. 1840년 아편전쟁을 시작으로 중국대륙 남단의 서양 같은 홍콩에서, 중국이나 영국과 다른 정치⋅행정⋅경제체제에서 살던 홍콩사람이 중국인인가의 문제는 국적과 생활 모습만으로 쉽게 구분할 수 없다. 그 이유는 이들이 비록 1997년 영국의 홍콩(British Hong Kong) 여권에서 중화인민공화국 홍콩특별행정구(SAR) 여권으로 대내외신분이 바뀌었지만, 이들은 중국 문화를 기초로 서구제도를 받아들이고 이에 적응한 홍콩문화의 특징을갖고 스스로 홍콩의 주인이라 생각하는 홍콩사람들이기 때문이다. 이들이주장하는 것은 홍콩 자치의 민주이자 자유다. 그러나 홍콩을 회복한 중국정부 입장에서 홍콩은 중국의 영토이고 홍콩주민은 중국 공민의 일부로여기고 있다. 이런 측면에서 보면, 일국양제가 과연 홍콩 토착민의 민주화요구를 해결할 수 있는지는 장담할 수 없다. 즉, 2047년까지의 ‘일국양제’ 가 끝나지 않은 현재에도 홍콩의 ‘중국화’는 더 빨리 진행되고 있고, 홍콩주민의 민주화운동도 계속 되고 있다. 이는 홍콩 민주화운동이 홍콩토착민의 ‘愛香情神(홍콩 사랑)’에 기인하기 때문이다. 그러나 중국 정부의 홍콩에 대한 간섭과 통합은 더 속도를 빨리할 것으로 보인다.

세계체제와 탈식민 - 본토 홍콩의 정치경제학

유영하 한국중국현대문학학회 2016 中國現代文學 Vol.0 No.78

During my research about Hong Kong, I have been thinking about the value of the Hong Kong’s identity. The main purpose of the study was to research and conclude about Hong Kong’s identity and how important it is. I have also questioned about the legitimacy of Hong Kong’s identity within or outside the country. When you first arrive at Hong Kong International Airport, you will find a phrase that stated ‘Asia’s World City’ first. Geographically Hong Kong is located in Asia and for many, it is viewed as one of Asia’s main business hub, the ‘World City’ represents Hong Kong is a globalized and open city. As one of the main leading city in Asia during the era of globalization, Hong Kong with its slogan title of ‘Asia’s World City’ has always been proud of it, however internally it has been facing two major issues that may threaten its stability, the first being the laissez-faire capitalism which leads to the economic disparity gap between the rich and poor. The Second is the wide spread of Chinese nationalism propaganda that the Chinese colonizers have brought. In order to keep its locality, Hong Kong has to survive from the threats of both capitalism and colonialism. I have been observing Hong Kong as a capitalistic place from the world system perspective, and also imagining the process of Hong Kong’s beyond colonialism, nationalism and capitalism. When we recognize that the globalization is rapidly proceeding despite of its pros and cons, and we can understand that the formation of open market is ultimately inevitable, Hong Kong is currently on the way to be one. Many scholars have indicated that when both of localization and globalization develop in parallel, tension and competition would naturally emerge between them. Therefore, with the advent of globalization, we can easily assume that localization and nationalism are keeping each other in check. Obviously, the tension between globalism and localism is complex and multifaceted. Globalization identity and cultural identity are always competing with each other. Since Hong Kong is representing issues in the view of world system, this place holds a very important position. To be specific, Hong Kong shows that solving a problem of subalterns and missing citizens caused by colonialism and capitalism from advanced countries is a prerequisite for globalization. In my opinion, there is a ‘China– Hong Kong System’ which is similar to a substructure of the ‘World System’. When we take a clear look at the relationship between China and Hong Kong now, according to the words of Long Ying-tai about colonialism, it ignores the masses and does not focus on the long-term development that the British government has applied on before. After the transfer of its sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China in 1997, there have been conflicts between Main Land China and its semi-periphery ‘Hong Kong’ regarding Hong Kong’s identity without taking into account its local values and freedom. With great economic benefits as the forefront reason for change, China is trying hard to change and curb Hong Kong’s intrinsic values which were the core origins of the Island City.

희미한 흔적과 대체된 상상 ― 한국의 대중과 함께 홍콩을 문제화하기

임대근 한국중국현대문학학회 2014 中國現代文學 Vol.0 No.71

In Korea, the interest in Hong Kong in terms of human andsocial sciences have mainly been focused on the issue of ‘identity.’To the Korean public, the interest in the change of regime in aspecific region caused merely temporary curiosity; yet to scholarswho must develop objects that can generate a new body ofknowledge, Hong Kong was to form a very attractive academicagenda. It is important to examine the implications that can betraced from this gap between academic study and popular curiosityabout Hong Kong. It also constitutes a question: Why do scholarsrepeatedly endeavor to ‘problematize’ an ‘event’ or an ‘object’ inwhich the Korean public feel indifferent? The question can go onestep further: What is the gap between the ‘object’ and the ‘subject’when scholars produce a body of knowledge? To the Korean public,Hong Kong sometimes was an object that was represented invulgar slangs. Why did the discourse on building a relationship between Korea and Hong Kong fail? It is because the essentialquestion about relationship, namely, the question of subjectpositioning has been expunged. I try to call the people of HongKong, with insecure double identity, are Homo Sacer, the term thatused by Giorgio Agamben. And I want to argue that it must havea historical or present study about interrelationship of popularculture between Korea and Hong Kong. How does the Koreanpublic represent and consume Hong Kong? Objectification orsubjectification, Hong Kong is represented and consumed in Koreaas a matter of popular culture. For instance, when popular songsin Korea talk about Hong Kong, what does it mean to the Koreanpublic? These songs sing: “night streets of Hong Kong and starswhisper”(Geum Sa-Hyang, “A Hong Kong Girl,” 1952); “theleft-handed man from Hong Kong”(Lee Mi-Ja, “A Left-Handed Manfrom Hong Kong”); “the second daughter of Hong Kong Diner”(PunkFloyd, “The Second Daughter of Hong Kong Diner”); “a night inHong Kong”(Lee Seon-Gyu, “A Night in Hong Kong”); or “Baby,let's go to Hong Kong, with faint memories”(Yang Dong-Geun,“Let's Go to Hong Kong”). Each of the songs represent dreamlikelove or memories of love with someone extraordinary, objectifyingand representing the city to create a history of its own. Recently,the songs bring Hong Kong to the inside of the subject,restructuring it as a “different” part of us. We also need to seehow Hong Kong is represented in the popular Korean cinema. According to the Korean Movie Database, there are 9 feature filmssince the 1960s that include ‘Hong Kong’ in the title: ALeft-Handed Man from Hong Kong (directed by Lim Won-Jik,1965); S.O.S. Hong Kong (Choi Gyeong-Ok, 1966); A Seaman inHong Kong (Choi Young-Chul, 1970); A Man with a Cane in Hong Kong (Choi Young-Chul, 1970); A Man and a Woman from HongKong (Shin Kyeong-Gyun, 1970); Gold 70: Operation Hong Kong(Choi In-Hyun,1970); Madam Jang from Hong Kong (ShinKyeong-Gyun, 1970); Hong Kong Blues (Shin Kyeong-Gyun, 1971);and Park: An Iron Man from Hong Kong (Shin Kyeong-Gyun,1971). Under the circumstances, the Korean movie industry seemsto have used materials that felt as foreign as possible, to respondto the the Korean public’s taste. To the Korean public, Hong Kongis thus turning from a “faint memory” to “replaced imagination.”