六溪土城의 調査ㆍ硏究成果와 歷史的 價値

백종오 한국고대학회 2022 선사와 고대 Vol.- No.68

This article summarizes the archaeological achievements of Yukgye Earthen Fortress through surface surveys and excavation surveys. Then, it examines the current status, structure, and historical value of Yukgye Earthen Fortress by reviewing documents in the Joseon Dynasty and modern maps before and after the Japanese colonial period. The natural environment of Yukgye Earthen Fortress consists of the alluvial plateau on the riverbank of meandering rivers, the cliffs formed along the Chugaryeong Tectonic Valley, the development of rapids due to the inflow of tributary streams, mountainous areas such as Mt. Gamak and Mt. Papyeong in the south, and tributary rivers flowing to the north. It is believed that such a blessed environment acted as the cause of the formation of Yukgye Earthen Fortress and many fortress relics around it. In the Joseon Dynasty literature on Yukgye Earthen Fortress, the name Yukgye Toseong(六溪土城, meaning Yukgye Earthen Fortress) was used in the Jeokseonghyeon Eupji(積城縣邑誌, Journal of Jeokseong-hyeon) after it was mentioned in Gihaeng Musul Juhaenggi(記行戊戌舟行記) as Yukgye Goru(drum tower) by Misu Heo Mok in 1658. In a topographical map of 1914, "Yukgye Toseongji(六溪土城址, meaning the site of Yukgye Earthen Fortress)" was indicated. It was indicated as Yukgye Seong(六溪城 meaning Yukgye Castle) in a national forest boundary map of 1915. The fortress structure shows the three-layered plane: inner, outer, and baby castles. Next, looking at its historical value, Yukgye Earthen Fortress condenses the appearance and development stages of the fortress and provides a junction point of earthen fortresses on flat ground and mountainous stone fortresses. Chiljung Fortress(Chiljungseong) at the rear also changed from an earthen fortress to a stone fortress during this period. Until the middle of the 7th century, Chiljung Fortress was a multi-layered earthen fortress. It was a double-layered fortress, like YukgyeEarthen Fortress. For example, in the Samguk Sagi(三國史記, History of the Three Kingdoms), Goguryeo's invasion of Chiljung Fortress in October and November of the same year, brilliant performances of Alcheon of Silla Kingdom, and Goguryeo's attack on Chiljungseong in November 660, and deaths of King and the ordinary people during the war occurred in theearthen fortresses with several layers. In addition, Horo Goru, known for stone structure with earthen axis along the Imjin River or stone fortress, Dangpo Fortress, Eundaeri Fortress, and Deokjin Mountain Fortress, also assumed to have natural structures of the earthen structure until this time. In addition, as the only triple flat castle in Korea, Yukgye Earthen Fortress was the largest base fortress in the Baekje Hanseong Period in the Imjin River Basin. The best Goguryeo relics and relics in South Korea were excavated there. After that, a military defense system was established centered on Horogoru, Dangpo Fortress, Eundaeri Fortress, Ami Fortress, Durubong Fortress, and Taebongsan Fortress. In other words, the combination relationship of Yukgye Earthen Fortress + Chiljung Fortress + Mt. Gamak = flatland fortress + mountain fortress + high and stiff mountain was the basis for forming the ancient military defense system in the Imjin River basin. So far, this study has tried to figure out the plane structure of the earthen fortress through the historical review of Yukgye Earthen Fortress. It provides a standard for examining the change process by period in the future. It is considered necessary to approach the fortresses with diverse perspectives with comprehension of natural topography and artificial structures such as rapids, cliffs, and mounds in the future. 이 글은 육계토성의 고고학적 성과를 지표조사와 발굴조사 등으로 나누어 정리한 후조선시대 문헌과 일제강점기 전후 근대 지도류 등의 검토를 통해 육계토성의 현황 및 구조 그리고 역사적 가치를 살펴본 것이다. 육계토성의 자연환경은 사행하천의 하안 충적대지, 추가령 구조곡을 따라 형성된 단애, 지류하천의 유입에 따른 나루와 여울의 발달, 남쪽의 감악산, 파평산 등 산간지대와북류하는 지류하천 등으로 요약된다. 이러한 천혜의 환경은 육계토성과 그 주변에 많은성곽유적을 잉태하는 원인으로 작용하였다고 여겨진다. 육계토성에 관한 조선시대 문헌은 1658년 미수 허목의 「記行戊戌舟行記」에 ‘六溪 古壘’라고 언급된 이후 『積城縣邑誌』 에서 ‘六溪土城’이라는 명칭을 사용하고 있다. 1914년 지형도에서는 ‘六溪土城址’, 1915 년 국유림 경계도에는 ‘六溪城’으로 표기하고 있다. 성의 구조는 성의 구조는 내성, 외성, 자성의 3중 성곽의 평면을 보여주고 있다. 다음으로 그 역사적 가치를 보면, 육계토성은 성의 출현과 발전단계를 응축하고 있으며 평지 토성과 산지 석성의 갈래를 제공하고 있다. 현재 배후의 칠중성 역시 이 시기를거치면서 토축성에서 석축성으로 변화하였으며 이전 7세기 중반까지도 육계토성과 마찬가지로 여러 겹의 토성 즉 重城이었다고 할 수 있다. 예컨대 『三國史記』에 나타난, 638년10월과 동년 11월에 벌어진 고구려의 칠중성 침입, 신라 알천의 활약, 660년 11월에 고구려의 칠중성 공격과 군주 필부 전사 등의 사건은 여러 겹의 土城에서 벌어졌다고 하겠다. 이외 임진강 변의 토심석축 혹은 석축성으로 알려진 호로고루, 당포성, 은대리성, 덕진산성 등도 이 시기까지는 토성의 景觀이 자연스럽지 않을까 한다. 또한 국내 유일의 3중 평지성으로 임진강 유역 백제 한성기의 최대 거점성에 해당된다. 그리고 남한내 최고의 고구려계 유구와 유물이 발굴되었으며 이후 호로고루와 당포성, 은대리성, 아미성, 두루봉보루, 태봉산보루 등을 위시하는 관방체계를 구축하게 된다. 즉 육계토성+칠중성+감악산=평지성+산성+고험처의 조합관계는 임진강유역의 고대 관방체계를 형성하는 모태가 된다고 할 수 있다. 지금까지 육계토성의 연구사적 검토를 통해 토성의 평면 구조를 파악해 보았는데 이는 향후 시기별 변천과정을 고찰하는데 하나의 기준을 제공하였다고 생각한다. 앞으로여울, 단애, 토루 등 자연 지형과 인공 구조물에 대한 다양한 관점과 이해를 가지고 성곽에 접근하는 자세가 필요하다고 여겨진다.

최근 고고학적 성과로 본 익산토성의 성격

이문형 전북사학회 2023 전북사학 Vol.- No.68

익산토성은 오금산 줄기의 정상부(해발 125m)에 축조된 포곡식 산성이다. 익산토성은 일명 ‘오금산성(五金山城)’ 또는 ‘보덕성(報德城)’으로도 불린다. 익산토성은 지금까지의 발굴조사 성과를 요약하면 다음과 같다. ①익산토성은 석축성이다. ②기존 알려진 남문지는 새롭게 확인된 서문지(폐쇄)로 볼 때 통일신라시대에 개축된 것이다. ③익산토성은 북성벽(외성벽) 하부에서 확인된 주공열과 기존에 조사된 남문지 서측 판축토루 등을 종합해 볼 때 토성일 가능성도 배제할 수 없다. ④익산토성의 남동모서리(Ⅲ-2구역)에서 기존 성벽과 다른 축조 방법과 석재 등으로 보아 백제시대 익산토성의 평면 형태는 지금과 다른 모습일 가능성이 있다. 익산토성에서는 출토된 유물 대부분이 백제시대 유물이 차지하고 있다. 특히, 익산토성의 성격을 파악할 수 있는 유물로 「北舍」銘 토기편과 「首府」銘 인장와를 대표적으로 들 수 있다. 지금까지 「북사」명 토기편과 「수부」명 인장와는 부여와 익산 지역에 한정되어 왕실 관련 유적에서만 출토되고 있다. 익산토성은 금마 지역의 이원적 방어체계 내에서 왕궁과 미륵사의 중간 연결선상에 위치하고 있는 것으로 보아 익산 왕궁의 피난성으로 해석된다. Iksan Earthen Fortress is a mountain fortress of Pogok type (包谷式) built at the top of Ogeumsan Mountain range (125m above sea level). It is also called ‘Ogeumsan Mountain Fortress (五金山城)’ or ‘Bodeokseong Fortress (報德城)’. The excavation results of Iksan Earthen Fortress so far may be summed up as follows: ①Iksan Mountain Fortress is a stone-built castle. ②The south gate (南門址) which was already discovered seems to have been reconstructed during the Unified Silla Period, judging from the newly confirmed site of west gate (西門址) (closed). ③Considering the row of pillar holes found in the lower part of the northern wall (outer wall) of Iksan Earthen Fortress and the existing investigation of the stamped earthwork mound on the west side of the south gate, the possibility that it must be an earthen fortress cannot be ruled out. ④Judging from the construction method and stone materials used in the southeastern corner (section III-2) of the Iksan Earthen Fortress which are different from existing walls, it is possible that the planar shape of Iksan Earthen Fortress during the Baekje period was different from the present one. Most of the artifacts excavated from Iksan Earthen Fortress are from the Baekje period. In particular, the pottery with inscription of ‘Buksa(北舍)’ and roof tiles with stamped letters ‘Subu(首府)’ are the representative relics that display very well the character of Iksan Earthen Fortress. So far, such relics have been excavated only in the royal family-related ruins, limited to Buyeo and Iksan. Considering that Iksan Earthen Fortress is located on the midway link between the royal palace and Mireuksa Temple within the dualistic defense system of the Geumma area, it is interpreted as a refugee castle of the Iksan royal palace.

忠州地域의 百濟 城郭에 대한 새로운 접근

김호준,전혁기 백제학회 2025 백제학보 Vol.- No.51

This study aims to reassess previous research on Baekje fortresses in the Chungju region and present a new perspective. First, an overview of the Baekje fortresses distributed along the Namhan River and Dalcheon River systems in the Chungju area was examined. Additionally, archaeological issues requiring reexamination were identified, leading to the discovery of several significant points of contention. Regarding the Tangeumdae Earthen Fortress, it was found that, in addition to the previously known earthen wall (inner fortress) construction techniques, another method involved diagonally cutting the bedrock and stacking soil or stone materials either diagonally or horizontally on the inner side of the fortress. There is also a possibility that this area served as a gate site for the inner fortress. Furthermore, field surveys suggested the potential existence of an outer fortress and a subsidiary fortress beyond the previously known inner fortress. For Jangmisan Fortress, clarifying the relationship between the valley wall and the brazier facility (residential site) is crucial for distinguishing the construction and management periods. To achieve this, a detailed stratigraphic analysis of the earthen and stone walls, as well as the residential sites in the valley through a longitudinal section analysis along the north-south direction, is necessary. Additionally, a comparison with previous excavation results at Jangmisan Fortress is required to summarize the fortress walls’ unique and common characteristics. Jangtaesan Fortress has been recognized as comprising a Baekje earthen fortress at its summit and an outer Goryeo-era fortress. However, this study proposes the possibility that the Baekje earthen fortress may have been a double-walled fortress composed of an inner and outer fortress. Moreover, field surveys confirmed the partial remains of an earthen rampart. Therefore, a more in-depth academic investigation is required for Jangtaesan Fortress. Gyeonhak-ri Earthen Fortress is a rectangular earthen fortress adjacent to a river, making it unique. Notably, the spacing of the embankments may have been altered from the previously known 3.3 meters to a narrower range of 1.5 to 1.7 meters. This indicates the need for a detailed academic investigation to reassess the construction period of the Gyeonhak-ri Earthen Fortress. This study is significant as it proposes new research topics for understanding Baekje’s waterway expansion along the Namhan River, Baekje’s territorial advancement into the Chungju region, and the struggle between Baekje and Goguryeo over control of this area.

옥천 已城山城의 역사고고학적 함의

백종오 한국고대사학회 2024 한국고대사연구 Vol.- No.115

This article examines the historical and archaeological significance of Yiseong-sanseong Fortress in Okcheon, focusing on a review of literature, research history, and archaeological excavation results. Yiseong-sanseong Fortress in Okcheon is an earthen fortress from the Three Kingdoms period, located in Sangye-ri, Cheongseong-myeon, Okcheon-gun, Chungcheongbuk-do. According to The History of the Three Kingdoms, the fortresses of Samyeon and Gulsan were rebuilt in the 8th year (486) of Soji Maripgan. Gulsan Fortress is believed to have been the main fortress, rebuilt from Gul-sanseong Fortress in Okcheon, originally constructed 16 years earlier, alongside Samnyeon-sanseong Fortress in Boeun, which was built in the 13th year (470) of Jabi Maripgan. This case is one of the few instances in the history of ancient Korean fortresses where both historical records and archaeological data were consistent. However, Samnyeon-sanseong Fortress, from the same period and located nearby, is a massive stone fortress with a circumference of 1,700 meters. Its construction techniques are typical of late 5th-century fortresses in ancient Korea, featuring stone axial walls 15 to 20 meters high, a “Hyeonmun”-style gate (with the gate located at the upper part of the wall), a Gokseong (a balcony-type space attached to the wall for defensive and offensive purposes), and pedestal supports. In contrast, Gul-sanseong Fortress is an earthen fortress with a circumference of 1,140 meters, constructed using rammed-earth techniques, showcasing a clear difference in both materials and construction methods. It is challenging to determine whether this difference is due to temporal or regional factors, which could be attributed to the lack of scholarly re-investigation, such as a review of research history and new archaeological findings. Examples of earthen ramparts from this period include late 5th to 6th-century rammed-earth ramparts like the inner section of the southern wall of Samnyeon-sanseong Fortress in Boeun, mid-6th-century ramparts such as the inner section of the western wall of Jeokseong Fortress in Danyang, the northern wall of Buseo-sanseong Fortress in Buyeo (which was built along valleys surrounding the mountain peak), and the eastern and southeastern walls of a military warehouse fortress built near the mountain summit. Other notable examples include the northern fortress wall surrounding Sajaru Pavilion, built in the first half of the 7th century, Gong-sanseong Fortress in Gongju, Yiseong-sanseong Fortress in Sejong, and Gangmun- dong Earthen Fortress in Gangneung. At Yiseong-sanseong Fortress in Okcheon, it was clearly confirmed that ramparts, originally built using the Yukchuk construction technique on flat ground, evolved from earthen fortresses to stone fortresses. The construction style of reinforcing the outer section of the earthen wall with stones was present during this transitional phase. This shows that the development of ancient Korean fortresses followed a sequential progression in construction materials, scale, and techniques, in line with global historical trends. Because Yiseong-sanseong Fortress in Okcheon underwent minimal modifications by later generations, it has largely retained its original form as an earthen rampart built using rammed-earth techniques. This preservation enhances its historical and archaeological value, making it a significant reference point for understanding the military landscape and battles between the Three Kingdoms from the late 5th to the early 7th century. 이 글은 옥천 이성산성의 문헌 및 연구사 검토와 고고학 발굴조사 성과를 중심으로 역사고고학적 함의를 살펴본 것이다. 옥천 이성산성은 충북 옥천군 청성면 산계리에 위치하는 삼국시대 토성유적이다. 『三國 史記』에 따르면 三年ㆍ屈山의 두 성을 소지마립간 8년(486)에 개축하였다고 하는데, 그중 굴산성이 옥천 이성산성으로 비정되고 있다. 즉 자비마립간 13년(470)에 초축한 보은의 삼년산성과 함께 옥천의 굴산성을 16년 후에 고쳐 쌓았다는 것이다. 이는 한국고대 성곽사에서문헌사료와 고고자료가 부합하는 희소한 사례에 해당한다. 하지만 인근에 위치한 同시기의삼년산성은 둘레 1,700m의 거대한 석축산성으로 높이 15~20m의 석축성벽, 현문식 성문, 곡성, 기단보축 등 그 축성술은 한국고대 석축산성의 편년 중 5세기 후반의 표지적인 기준이 되고 있다. 이에 비해 굴산성은 둘레 1,140m의 판축토성으로 축조재료 및 축조방법에서너무나도 극명한 차이가 있다. 이 같은 차이에 대해 시기적인 문제인지 아니면 지역적인 문제인지 판단하기 어려운데, 그 이유는 연구사 검토 및 고고학 조사 결과 등 학술 성과의 再考가 부재하였기 때문이라고볼 수 있다. 이 시기 토축성벽의 사례로는 보은 삼년산성 남벽 내측 구간의 5세기 후반~6세기대 판축성벽, 단양 적성 서벽 내측 구간의 6세기 중반대 판축성벽, 그리고 7세기 전반에조성된 부여 부소산성 포곡식산성 북벽부와 군창지테뫼식산성의 동벽 및 동남벽 연접부 그리고 사자루테뫼식산성 북벽부 등이 있다. 이외 공주 공산성, 세종 이성, 강릉 강문동토성 등을 예로 들 수 있다. 지상의 육축구조물인 성곽은 토축성에서 석축성으로 발전되었으며 그 과도기에 외면에축석하는 ‘토축외면축석양식’ 또는 ’토축외면축석성‘이 존재한다는 것을 옥천 이성산성 발굴조사에서 선명하게 확인할 수 있었다. 이를 통해 한국고대의 성곽이 세계사적인 보편성에맞추어 축조 재료와 규모, 축성법 등에 있어서 순차적으로 발전하였다는 사실을 알 수 있다. 옥천 이성산성은 후대의 연용이 최소한으로 이루어졌기 때문에, 당대의 판축토성이 온전하게 남을 수 있었다. 그 결과 5세기 후반에서 7세기 전반까지 삼국간의 역동적인 각축 현장을복원하는 또 다른 지표가 되었다는 점에서 역사고고학적 가치와 의미는 지대하다고 판단된다.

강릉 강문동토성의 축조기법과 성격

심정보 ( Sim Jeong Bo ) 동아시아문물연구학술재단 2015 文物硏究 Vol.- No.27

강문동토성은 강원도 강릉시 강문동 265번지 일원에 해당하는 죽도봉에 축조되어 있는 토성이다. 이 토성의 존재가 확인되기 이전에 이미 경포대 현대호텔이 건축되어 운영되고 있었으며, 평창 동계올림픽을 대비하여 호텔건물 확장사업을 추진하는 과정에서 고고학적인 조사가 시행되었고 그 결과 토성의 전모가 밝혀지게 되었다. 이 토성의 입지적인 조건은 동쪽으로는 바로 동해에 면하여 있고, 서쪽과 북쪽으로는 경포호에 접해 있으며, 남쪽으로는 경포천이 경포호에서 동해로 흐르고있다. 강문동토성은 죽도봉의 정상부에서 사면 하단부에 이르기까지 유사판축 및판축기법에 의하여 체성을 축조하고 대지를 조성하였음이 확인되었다. 이 토성의 남벽 서단부 발굴 Tr.2에서 확인된 축조기법은 체성 외벽에 벽심을 조성하고 이에 의지하여 토루의 규모를 키워나가거나, 문지를 조성하는 기법은 증평 이성산성의 사례와 유사하며, 중심토루를 축조한 후 중심토루 내외벽에 덧붙여서 체성을 구축하는 공정은 풍납토성의 축조사례에서 찾을 수 있어 백제와의 친연성을 보여주는 것이라 하겠다. 또한, 토성 내에서 백제 성곽에서만 확인되고 있는 대형플라스크형 저장시설이 5기가 확인되고 있어 더욱 그러하다고 하겠다. 이 토성은 이사부가 실직주 군주로 부임한 505년에서 하슬라주를 신설하고 군주로 부임한 512년 사이에 축조되었을 것으로 파악되며, 이 시기에 전선(戰船)의 건조와 군사들의 훈련도 아울러 이루어졌을 것으로 판단된다. 그리하여 512년에 이사부가 하슬라주 군주로 부임하자마자 우산국을 정벌할 수 있었던 역사적인 사실을 해명할 수 있는 것이다. 한편, 『삼국사기』 및 『삼국유사』에는 이사부의 우산국 정벌기사에서 울릉도까지의 방향 및 여정을 일관되게 강릉의 옛 이름인 하슬라주 및 명선로부터 기점을 잡고 있음을 볼 수 있다. 이것은 바로 우산국 정벌 시에 이사부의 출항지가 강릉이었음을 단적으로 나타내는 것이라 하겠다. 또한, 『삼국사기』樂志에 의하면, 최치원의 시에 향악잡영 5수가 수록되어있고, 그 중 ‘금환(金丸)’이라는 제목의 노래에 순금이 바다의 파도를 잠재우게 한다고 하고 있어 당시 신라인들의 의식세계를 알 수 있는데, 강문동토성 내에서 출토된 금환도 전선이 출항할 시에 파도를 잠재울 목적으로 매납하였을 것으로 파악된다. 강문동토성에서 금환과 함께 수습된 의례용 기기인 기대 및 고배류의 출토사례를 종합해 볼 때, 이사부가 이곳에서 우산국을 정벌하기 위한 의식을 행하는 등의 준비를 마치고 출항하였던 출발점이라는 것을 증명하는 적극적인 고고학자료라고 판단된다. Gangmundong Earthen Fortress is located on the Jukdo peak and the address of the area is 265, Gangmun-dong, Gangneung City, Gangwon Province. Before the fortress was found, Hyundai Hotel Gyeongpodae was constructed and run. As the hotel was considering its extension before the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, an archaeological study was carried out, thus leading to the discovery of the fortress. The earthen fortress meets the East Sea in its east and the Gyeongpo lake in its north and west. In its south, the Gyeongpo creek flows from the Gyeongpo lake to the East Sea. From the top of the Jukdo peak to the bottom of the slope, the semi or real rammed earth technique was used for the construction of the fortress body and land formation. As for the western end of its south wall, a wall stiffener was installed in the outer wall of the fortress body in order to increase the size of the earthwork or to form the gate site, a technique that is similar to Iseongsanseong Fortress in Jeungpyeong. In another part of Gangmundong Earthen Fortress, the fortress body was constructed by adding materials to the inner and outer walls of the main earthwork, as in the case of Pungnap Earthen Fortress, thus meaning an affinity with Baekje. The fact that further demonstrates such an affinity is the discovery of five large flask-shaped storage sites in the earthen fortress; such storage characterizes Baekje’s fortresses. This earthen fortress would have been reconstructed extensively between 505 when General Yi Sa-bu was appointed as the governor of Siljik Province and 512 when Yi founded Haseula Province to serve as its governor. During this period, combat ship building and military training would have taken place at the same time. This explains how Yi was able to conquer the State of Usan soon after he became the governor of Haseula Province in 512. According to the historical document Samguksagi Akji, A poem by Choi Chi-won called “round lump of gold” says that “pure gold calms the sea.” This poem leads us to infer what the people of Silla believed. In the same vein, the gold ring that were excavated in Gangmundong Earthen Fortress would have been buried there when combat ships went into battle, in an attempt to calm the sea. Ritual objects such as gidaes and gobaes that were discovered with the gold ring in the earthen fortress also serve as precious archaeological evidence because they further strengthens the argument that Yi would have held a rite in thie fortress before the battle, wishing for conquering the State of Usan.

한국고대 성곽문화의 源流, 六溪土城

백종오 한국고대사학회 2025 한국고대사연구 Vol.- No.120

This paper examines the current state and characteristics of the Yukgye Toseong Earthen Fortress in Paju, exploring its historical significance in fortification construction and its potential as the origin of ancient Korean fortress culture. The researcher focuses on the red cliff terrain formed by the steep cliffs and alluvial plains along the Imjingang River basin, identifying the Yukgye Earthen Fortress as the only relic site capable of showcasing the original form of ancient Korean fortress culture.The Yukgye Toseong Earthen Fortress is situated on the high bank at the confluence of the Imjingang River, flowing east to west, and the Samicheon Stream, flowing north to south. It is a three-layered riverside flatland fortress, centered on an outer wall, with an inner wall and subsidiary walls, built atop columnar jointed cliffs and a river terrace. Excavations have uncovered numerous artifacts, including Baekje Hanseong-period ‘呂’-shaped and ‘凸’-shaped dwellings, pit structures, and related remains. Furthermore, as the largest fortress in the Imjingang River basin, it has yielded the oldest Goguryeo dwellings and pottery in South Korea. This attests to Yukgye Toseong Earthen Fortress's historical and archaeological significance spanning the 3rdto5thcenturies.Yukgye Toseong Earthen Fortress served as a key strategic point in the Imjingang River basin, a junction of waterways and river routes. Passing through this location provided access to the Hangang River basin via Chiljungseong Fortress and Gamaksan Mountain. This enabled the establishment of Baekje’s unique defensive system: riverside flatland fortresses combined with mountain fortresses and high-ground strongholds. The prototype for this defense system can be found in the capital defense system of Baekje’s Hanseong period: Pungnap Toseong Eathen Fortress combined with Mongchon Toseong Eathen Fortress (or Iseong Sanseong Fortress) and Namhansan Mountain.Therefore, the unique natural environment of the Imjingang River basin, which created the red cliff terrain, provided a decisive factor in the site selection theory of the fortress ruins. It can be seen that the formation of the defense system through this terrain also manifested in a manner linked to geopolitical factors. Furthermore, similar to Pungnap Toseong Eathen Fortress, the construction process faithfully reflected the principles of fortification design. The inner moat within the fortress was understood to share origins with the valley sections of mountain fortresses of the basin type (valley-enclosed style), rather than those of riverside flatland fortresses. This is assumed to be a valuable clue for tracing the origins of Korea’s ancient fortification culture.

안성 도기동산성의 발굴성과와 성벽구조에 대한 소고

김진영(Kim jin young) 고구려발해학회 2017 고구려발해연구 Vol.58 No.-

도기동산성이 위치한 안성분지 일원은 고대로부터 해상과 육상교통로의 결절지로 삼국의 영역화 과정에서 전략적 요충지 역할을 하였는데 이러한 안성분지의 중심에 도기동산성이 위치한다. 도기동산성은 주로 성벽부분을 중심으로 수차례의 발굴조사가 진행되었으며, 발굴조사 결과 토성에서 목책성으로 변모한 것으로 여겨진다. 초축 성벽은 구릉 경사면을 단이 지게 굴토한 후 성토하여 높은 토루를 조성하고 상부에 목책을 설치하였다. 주된 방어벽은 토루로 목책은 여담과 같은 역할을 한 토성으로 판단된다. 축조시기는 후대 성벽 구조물과 내부공간의 주거지 및 저장구덩에서 출토되는 백제토기와 성벽의 AMS 연대 측정 결과 등을 고려할 때 한성 백제기인 4세기 중·후반 무렵을 전후한 시기에 축성되어 5세기 대 까지 운용된 것으로 판단된다. 초축 성벽의 상부를 정지한 후 축조한 목책은 서로 연결된 내·외 이중목책 구조로 바깥 목책에 점토를 두텁게 바른 석축시설을 덧대고 외부에 성토하여 목책을 보강한 구조적 특징을 나타낸다. 이러한 목책구조는 세종 남성골산성과 연천 무등리2보루 등의 성벽구조와 매우 유사한 것으로 고구려 목책성의 구조적 특징을 잘 보여준다. 성벽 구조물에서 출토되는 고구려 토기의 특징 상 5세기 후반에서 6세기 중반 대에 해당하여 475년 고구려의 한성 공함 동시에 곧바로 안성지역까지 진출하여 축조하였음을 알 수 있다. 아울러 산성의 평면구조는 발굴된 성벽의 위치와 진행방향으로 볼 때 내·외성으로 구성된 중성구조이며, 북문과 남문의 문지 두 곳이 있었던 것으로 추정된다. 규모는 내성의 둘레가 약 1.4km 정도이며, 외성을 포함한 전체 둘레는 2km는 족히 되는 거성으로 남한 내 고구려 성곽에서 가장 크며, 백제토성 중에서도 중앙의 몽촌토성과 지방국읍체의 중심으로 비정되는 화성 길성리토성에 버금가는 것으로 산성의 규모와 지정학적 위치상 백제와 고구려의 남방경략과정에서 거점성 기능을 하였을 것으로 여겨진다. The Anseong Basin area where Dogidong Fortress is located is the node of maritime and inland transportation passages from the ancient times with the role of strategically critical location in the territory process of the three kingdoms and Dogidong Fortress is situated in the central part of the Anseong Basin. There have been a few excavation survey mainly around the rampart part of Dogidong Fortress, and as a result of the excavation survey, it seems to have a repairing and alteration process to turn it from the earthen fortress to the wooden fence fortress. The first rampart excavated the sloped area of the ridge to have steps and then it builds the high earthen tower to install the wooden fence on the upper part. The main defense wall is the earthwork that the wooden fence seems to be the earthen fortress with the role that is similar to battlement. The construction period has weak direct base data, but when considering the AMS chronological measurement result and others for the Baekje earthenware and rampart excavated in the post rampart structure, residence of internal space and storage pits, it is considered as constructed in the reign of King Geunchogo around middle and later part of the 4th century, the Hanseong Baekje Era and operated it up to the 5th century era. After leveling the upper part of the first Rampart, the constructed wooden fence has the connected internal and external dual wooden fence structure. It has the structural characteristics with reinforced wooden fence by building up the exterior after applying the stone structure facility that is thickly coated on the external wooden fence. Such a wooden fence structure is very similar to the rampart structure of Sejong Namseonggol Fortress and Yeoncheon Mudeungri2 fort that it displays well of structural characteristics of Goguryeo wooden fence fortresses. For the characteristics of the rampart found in the rampart structures, it would be applicable at the time between the later 5th century to the mid-6th century and it is shown to be constructed by advancing up to the Anseong area simultaneously with the Hanseong fall of Goguryeo in 475. Furthermore, when looking at the location of the excavated rampart and its direction for the plane structure of the fortress, it is in the dual fortress as it is structured with inner and external fortresses and it is assumed to have two gate the North Gate and South Gate. For its scale, the circumference of the inner fortress is approximately 1.4km and the overall circumference including the external fortress is at least 2km that this is the largest Goguryeo fortress in South Korea. It is comparable to the Mongchon earthen fortress that is in the middle of the Baekje earthen fortresss and the Hwaseong Gilseong-ri earthen fortress as the central part of local town system, and it seems to take on the role of the hub fortress in the process of advancement toward the southern regions for Baekje and Goguryeo considering the scale of the fortress and its geopolitical location.

林堂土城 築造에 따른 聚落空間의 再編

장용석 한국고고학회 2016 한국고고학보 Vol.101 No.-

This paper considers how the construction of Imdang Earthen Wall Fortress resulted in the spatial reorganization of the central settlement of Apdok-guk (押督國). Fortress construction in Silla began around the beginning of the 4th century with Wolsung (月城), located in the capital, Gyeongju. In the early to middle 4th century, fortresses were constructed in Gyeongsan and Daegu, along the Geumho River (琴湖江) system. The construction of Imdang Earthen Wall Fortress was the final step in a process that involved war, submission, revolt, pacification, and the relocation of a Silla ruling class to Apdok-guk. The construction of the earthen wall followed the dismantlement of the center of the settlement, where the elite had originally resided. It was here that Imdang Earthen Wall Fortress, which symbolized Silla control, was established, and the area within came to house government offices and a residential area for the Silla ruling class. Comparative analysis with Wolsung is useful in order to explore possible uses for the area within the fortress. The residential area was reorganized following the construction of the earthen walls, and the possible nature of this area before and after fortress wall construction, as well as in the 5th century, is explored. Settlements were established in Areas F and I prior to the construction of the earthen walls; these two settlements maintained an equal relationship. With the construction of Imdang Fortress, the Area F settlement was dismantled; the walls were constructed on top of this area. The area within the fortress walls came to be used as an area for government offices and the residences of the Silla ruling elite. A settlement was maintained in Area I from the mid to late 2nd century to the mid 4th century. The fact that the 4th century settlement was smaller, in 林堂土城 築造에 따른 聚落空間의 再編 | 123 terms of both size and the number of dwellings, than the 3rd century dwelling indicates that the social position of that settlement had weakened. The settlement area dating to the 5th century has yet to be found at the Imdang site. It is presumed that the area within the fortress walls continued to house institutions associated with Silla rule. The settlements of the populations associated with the Imdang mounded tombs may have been located in the following areas: Imdang 2-dong and its environs for the population associated with the Imdang mounded tomb cluster; the area further east, represented by Bugok-ri for the population associated with the Bugok-dong mounded tomb cluster.

풍납토성 기초 토목기술 비교연구 —중국의 사례를 중심으로—

전세원(Seh Won Jeon),임영재(Young Jae Lim) 한국고고학회 2024 한국고고학보 Vol.- No.130

서울 풍납토성의 기초 토목기술과 중국 토성의 사례를 분석하여 각 요소별 특징을 비교·검토하였다. 그동안 주목되지 않았던 토성의 입지와 구조를 살펴보고, 기조·잡석지정·말목지정·토제·내외부부석 등의 요소에서 공통점을 도출하였다. 이에 따라 풍납토성 축조 기술의 유입과정을 추론해 보고 기초 토목기술의 발전 과정을 살펴보았다. 풍납토성 축조에 사용된 기초 토목기술 요소 중 상당수가 당시 중국에서 토성·교량·접안시설 건설 등에서 보편적으로 사용되던 기술임을 확인하였다. 특히, 요동군과 현토군 지역에서도 이러한 기술 요소들이 확인되고 있는 점은 풍납토성 기초 토목기술의 연원과 유입경로에 대한 실마리를 제공한다. 이밖에도 토제를 사용한 축조방법은 중국에서는 적절한 비교사례가 많지 않아, 백제 자체적으로 발전한 기초 토목기술일 가능성을 제시하였다. 즉, 백제는 외래 기술을 도입하고 토착 기술을 활용하여 풍납토성이라는 대규모 건축물을 완성한 것이다. 풍납토성 축조에 사용된 토목기술은 백제 후기의 도성과 산성에도 계속해서 활용·발전되며, 이후 일본에도 전파된다. This paper analyzes the foundational construction techniques of Pungnap Earthen Fortress in Seoul and compares them with examples of Chinese earthen fortresses, exploring their respective characteristics. Elements such as the position and structure of the fortresses, which had previously been overlooked, were examined, and commonalities were derived from components such as foundational planning, stone or gravel bedding, wooden pilings, use of the earthen mound method, and the use of stone facings on walls. Through this, we inferred the process of the introduction of Pungnap Earthen Fortress's foundational techniques and inspected the progression of foundational engineering. A significant number of foundational construction techniques used in the construction of Pungnap Earthen Fortress were identified as techniques commonly used in China at the time for the construction of earthen fortresses, bridges, and harbor facilities. Especially, the discovery of these techniques in the regions of Liaodong and Xuantu provides clues about the origin and transmission routes of the foundational techniques of Pungnap Earthen Fortress. Furthermore, the construction method using the earth mound method is not found frequently in China as a comparable case, leading to the assessment that it evolved as a unique foundational technique within Baekje. In essence, Baekje adopted foreign techniques and combined them with indigenous methods to complete the large-scale structure known as Pungnap Earthen Fortress. The foundational techniques utilized in the construction of Pungnap Earthen Fortress continued to be applied and developed in the outer city wall, Buyeo and the mountain fortresses of the later periods of Baekje, and were eventually transmitted to Japan.

몽촌토성 북문지 일원 삼국시대 考古資料의 양상과 성격

박중균,이혁희 백제학회 2018 백제학보 Vol.0 No.26

몽촌토성 북문지 일원에 대한 최근 발굴조사에서는 몽촌토성의 축조시점과 성격, 변천 등을 살펴볼 수 있는 삼국시대 유구와 유물들이 확인되었다. 삼국시대 유구는 도로와 수혈유구·건물지 등이 일정한 공간 분포상의 정형성을 띠며 확인되었다. 즉, 도로는 격자상으로 구획된 양상을 보이고 있으며, 수혈유구와 건물지 등은 북문지 내측에서 북서쪽으로 치우친 지점의 도로로 둘러싸인 공간에 분포하고 있는 특징을 보이고 있다. 또한 주목되는 부분은 백제 漢城이 고구려에 의해 함락된 이후의 시기에 고구려가 백제의 유구를 修改築하여 사용하거나 폐기된 백제 유구 위에 성토대지를 조성하고 수혈유구, 건물지 등을 시설하여 사용한 것으로 확인되었다. 이러한 유구의 양상은 한성백제가 멸망한 이후에도 고구려가 몽촌토성을 일정기간 동안 점유하고 활용했다는 것을 보여주는 것이라 생각된다. 유물상의 특징은 3가지 점에서 몽촌토성의 북서쪽에 인접하여 위치한 풍납동토성과 차이를 보이고 있다. 첫째, 원삼국기의 경질무문토기와 타날문토기편이 거의 확인되고 있지 않다는 점이다. 둘째, 삼국시대 문화층에서 출토되는 백제 토기는 한성 Ⅰ기에 해당하는 4세기 중엽 이전의 것들은 극히 드물며, 대부분 4세기 후반~5세기대의 한성 Ⅱ기에 해당하고 있다. 셋째, 풍납동토성에서는 고구려 유물의 출토 빈도가 극히 낮은데 비하여 몽촌토성에서는 1980년대 발굴조사에서도 확인된 바와 같이 고구려 토기·철촉 등의 유물이 상대적으로 출토빈도가 높다는 점이 특징이다. 이러한 유구와 유물의 양상은 몽촌토성이 축조된 지역은 원삼국기~한성Ⅰ기에는 거의 활용되지 않다가 4세기 중엽 이후 몽촌토성이 축조되면서 본격적으로 개발된 것으로 판단되며, 고구려가 백제 한성을 함락한 이후에도 몽촌토성을 일정시기 동안 남방진출의 중심기지로 활용한 것으로 추정된다. 한편, 몽촌토성 북서벽 구간의 성벽 외측 하단에 대한 조사에서는 기존에 목책으로 인식되었던 柱穴이 土城의 축조와 관련된 협판을 고정하는 목주의 주혈일 가능이 높은 것으로 확인되었다. 그리고 성벽에서 출토된 유물과 방사성탄소연대 측정결과를 고려할 때, 조사지점의 성벽 축조시점은 4세기 후반 경으로 추정된다. The recent excavation at the North gate area of Mongchon Earthen Fortress produced relics and artifacts from the period of Three Kingdoms to shed light on the construction time, nature, and changes of the Fortress. As for the relics from the period of Three Kingdoms, life relics, including roads, pit relics and building sites, have shown a fixed distribution in certain spaces. It is noteworthy that Goguryeo renovated and used relics left by Baekje and established embankment land on top of relics discarded by Baekje to use such facilities as pit relics and building sites after it took Hanseong from Baekje. These relic patterns indicate that Goguryeo occupied and utilized the Fortress for a certain amount of time even after the fall of Hanseong Baekje. Its artifact characteristics have differences from those of Pungnap Earthen Fortress adjacent to it in the northwest in three aspects: first, there was almost no hard plain pottery and pottery of Proto-Three Kingdoms; second, most of Baekje pottery excavated in the cultural layer of Three Kingdoms fell in Hanseong Period II between the latter half of the fourth century to the fifth century with only a few pieces before Hanseong Period I in the middle fourth century; and third, unlike the Pungnap Earthen Fortress where the excavation frequency of Goguryeo artifacts was extremely low, the Fortress recorded a relatively higher excavation frequency of Goguryeo artifacts including pottery and iron arrowheads as demonstrated in the excavation projects in the 1980s. These relic and artifact patterns indicate that the area where the Fortress was built was hardly used from the period of Proto-Three Kingdoms to Hanseong Period I and was developed in full scale with the construction of the Fortress in the middle fourth century. It is estimated that Goguryeo made use of the Fortress as its central base for the management and rule of its southern territory for a while even after it took Hanseong(漢城) of Baekje. An examination into the external bottom of the northwestern wall section in the Fortress raises a good possibility that the column pits were made to support wood board for the Fortress. Based on the artifacts excavated in the fortress walls and their radiocarbon dating results, it is estimated that the fortress wall, at the point of survey, was built in the latter half of the fourth century