The EU as Geopolitical Actor in the Arctic: A Perspective of EU’s Arctic Policy

신의찬 국립부경대학교 글로벌지역학연구소 2024 Journal of Global and Area Studies(JGA) Vol.8 No.2

As worldwide geopolitical and geographical interest in the Arctic intensifies, Europe also actively supports Arctic cooperation in the international arena and plays a direct role in addressing the challenges faced by the Arctic. Internally, the EU has addressed Arctic issues within the framework of its common policies and strategies since the establishment of the European Neighbourhood Policy in 2004, designating the region as the ‘Northern Dimension.’ Meanwhile, the ‘New Arctic Strategy’ announced by the EU on October 13, 2021, goes beyond the previous strategic and policy approaches in that it highlights the need to approach the Arctic geopolitically. The EU now views the Arctic not only as a subject of international cooperation but also as a region where Europe must intervene geopolitically and take responsibility. In a global context where competition and conflicts, such as the intensifying U.S.-China rivalry and the Russia-Ukraine war, are becoming fierce, the world is striving to secure interests amidst conflicts and cooperation. In this scenario, a new approach to the Arctic, which traditionally has been perceived more as a space for cooperation than conflict, is currently in demand. With major powers like the United States, China, and Russia actively engaging in Arctic activities for resource and route utilization, it remains to be seen whether the EU’s new Arctic strategy will be an opportunity or a challenge.

북극지역의 안보적 도전 - 군비경쟁의 정치적 함의

배규성,성기중 동아시아국제정치학회 2011 국제정치연구 Vol.14 No.2

지구온난화로 북극해의 빙하가 녹으면서 러시아·미국·캐나다·노르웨이·덴마크 등 5개국이 북극을 선점하기 위해 다양한 노력을 기울이고 있다. 북극은 군사전략과 경제적 관점에서 관심의 초점이 되고 있다. 이것은 당연히 북극의 지정학적 결과이다. 이것은 세계적인 전략적 균형에 관심 있는 국가들에게 북극을 이해관계의 핵심지역으로 변화시켰다. 또한 군사기술의 발달에 의해 전략무기시스템 운용을 위한 장으로서도 북극의 위치는 중요하다. 그러나 최근의 북극에 대한 관심은 전형적으로 기후변화, 천연자원, 주권주장, 새로운 항로 등과 관련되어 있다. 이런 쟁점들에 파묻혀 북극안보의 도전과 이 지역의 군사적 상황변화에 대한 논의는 적은편이나 자국의 국가이익에 대한 입장은 명백하다. 북극권 국가들은 북극관련 활동을 늘리고, 주로 해양 능력의 확대를 추진하고 있다. 그러나 북극지역의 군사적 배치는 북극의 열악한 환경이 군사작전을 위험하고 비싸게 만들기 때문에 생각만큼 쉽지 않다. 따라서 앞으로 북극에서의 군사전략적 균형의 유지와 더불어 북극에 대한 논의는 자원과 에너지문제, 환경 문제와 군사적 능력문제 등에 초점이 맞춰질 가능성이 높아 보인다. 그럼에도 불구하고 북극권의 국익을 보호하기 위한 북극권 국가들의 군비강화는 개연성의 고저를 떠나 명백할 것이다. The Arctic has long possessed an irreducible significance in military-strategic terms. The Global Warming resulted in Arctic ice melting, and competition among the Arctic states such as, United States, Canada, Russia, Norway, Denmark, for the resources accelerated. It is a natural consequences of geopolitics. A series of developments in military technology dramatically increased the role of the Arctic as a theater for the operations of strategic weapons systems, transforming the region into an area of intense interest to those countries concerned with the global strategic balance. Recent attention on the Arctic, however, has typically covered climatic changes, natural resources, sovereignty claims, and new shipping lanes. Thereafter, little discussed are Arctic security challenges and regional military posture shifts. The larger Arctic states such as United States, Canada, and Russia are clarifying national interests, increasing Arctic operations, and trumpeting plans to expand military (largely maritime) capacity. Yet employing forces in the Arctic is far easier said than done, because the harsh environment makes military operations expensive and dangerous. Therefore climatic changes, natural resources, sovereignty claims, new sea lanes as well as military balance of power will be the central issues of the Arctic. For now, Arctic capabilities of northern nations do not match the strength of their ambitions. Nevertheless, the high stakes suggest this could soon change.

인도의 북극정책: 러시아와의 협력 가능성과 문제점

이은선,김정훈 배재대학교 한국-시베리아센터 2023 한국시베리아연구 Vol.27 No.1

The Arctic is changing to a region of reflection on the international order amid the disruption of Arctic Exceptionalism caused by the Ukraine-Russia crisis and Finland's and Sweden's accession to NATO and the freeze of the Arctic Council. The Arctic is now splitted into two halves, with an “the A7 of Western state”(Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and the US), on one side, a "Non-Western states" of Russia, China and India. In particular, the international community is paying attention to India-Russia relations. India unveiled its first Arctic policy, ‘India and the Arctic: building a partnership for sustainable development’. The policy embodied India's approach in various fields encompassing economics and diplomacy, and lays down five missions and six pillars focusing on 'scientific and environmental research', 'economic and human development', and 'international cooperation'. It implies India's growing awareness and increasing interest in the Arctic region. Furthermore, India seeks to expand its engagement and influence power in this region. Regarding India's growing involvement in the Arctic, Russia is seeking to enhance ties and cooperation with India amid the recent deterioration of relations with the Western State and the expansion of China's influence. In this context, this paper analyzes the opportunities and challenges to further cooperation between India and Russia in the Arctic geopolitics and suggests implications for the Korean government to establish strategies for the New era in the Arctic region. 2022년 우크라이나 전쟁, 핀란드와 스웨덴의 NATO 가입 시도로 기인한 북극이사회의 동결은 국제정치와 북극지정학 간의 경계를 무너뜨리며 예외적인 공간이었던 북극지역에서 새로운 협력 구도의 형성을 야기했다. 러시아를 제외한 북극이사회 7개국, 러시아와 중국, 인도의 비서방국 협력 구도가 형성되고 있는 와중에 최근 국제사회가 주목하고 있는 것은 북극 지역의 신흥 참여국인 인도와 러시아아의 북극 협력 발전 가능성이다. 옵서버 국가인 인도는 지난해 3월 첫 정책 문서 「인도의 북극 정책: 지속가능한 발전을 위한 파트너쉽 수립(India’s Arctic Policy: Building a Partnership for Sustainable Development)」을 발표했다. 해당 정책에서 인도는 과학·환경연구, 경제 및 인적 개발, 국제 협력 등 세 가지 범주에 초점을 맞춘 5대 목표와 6대 기둥을 선정하여 경제 및 외교 분야를 망라하는 광범위한 활동과 이니셔티브를 제시했다. 북극에 대한 비전과 접근방식을 공식화하며 이해관계를 드러냈다는 것은 북극권에서의 인도의 참여와 역할이 확대될 것임을 시사한다. 한편 러시아는 서방과의 대립 심화, 중국의 영향력 확대에 대응하기 위해 대러 관계에서 실용주의적 입장을 견지하고 있는 인도와의 북극 협력을 적극 추진하는 움직임을 보이고 있다. 이에 본고는 북극질서의 새로운 축인 인도-러시아 관계에 주목하여 두 국가의 전략적 이해관계가 일치하는 분야로 ‘에너지’, ‘북극항로’, ‘과학연구’, ‘원주민 사회’를 제시하고 향후 협력 발전 가능성과 문제점에 대한 분석을 시도했다. 아울러 인도와 러시아의 협력 관계를 조망함으로써 변화하는 북극공간에서 한국이 취해야 할 접근방식과 새로운 진출 전략 수립을 위한 유용한 시사점을 제공하고자 했다.

From Busan to the Arctic: South Korea’s Maritime-Logistics Capability and the Potential Integration of Arctic Corridors into Global Logistics Systems

Abdulaziz Rustamovich Ashurov,Vakhabov Abdurahim Vasikovich 한국해양대학교 국제해양문제연구소 2026 해항도시문화교섭학 Vol.- No.37

This study examines South Korea’s maritime-logistics capability and its potential role in supporting the future integration of Arctic maritime corridors into global logistics systems, with particular focus on the Northern Sea Route (NSR) and Busan Port. Rather than treating the NSR as a direct substitute for the Suez Canal Route, the paper frames it as a seasonal and specialized corridor whose development depends on maritime infrastructure, logistics capability, regulation, and geopolitical stability. Using a balanced panel dataset of 14 countries for 2010–2024, the study applies panel-data methods to analyze the relationship between Arctic-related trade intensity, industrial-maritime integration, geopolitical risk, and global logistics integration. The findings show that Arctic maritime integration remains structurally constrained and has not yet produced a robust short-term effect on broader logistics integration. Arctic resource trade and industrial-maritime linkages show limited explanatory power after controlling for country-specific effects and robust panel errors. The results suggest that South Korea’s Arctic relevance lies less in current Arctic trade volumes and more in its maritime-industrial capacity, shipbuilding strength, smart-port development, and Busan Port’s role as a major logistics hub. The study contributes to Arctic shipping and port-system literature by reframing South Korea as a strategic maritime logistics integrator connecting emerging Arctic corridors with established global supply chains

Reinterpreting Risk Structures and Insurance Clauses for Sustainable Arctic Shipping – Structural Limitations of the Institute Cargo Clauses (A) 2009 –

Haram Lim,이창희 한국해양대학교 국제해양문제연구소 2026 해항도시문화교섭학 Vol.- No.37

The rapid reduction of Arctic sea ice driven by climate change is expanding the commercial potential of Arctic shipping routes, while also creating complex risks that existing marine insurance frameworks are not fully equipped to address. This study analyzes the structural limitations of the Institute Cargo Clauses (A) 2009 from the perspective of marine cargo insurance for cargo transported along Arctic routes and proposes directions for institutional improvement. The analysis focuses on the conflict between the current exclusion-clause structure and Arctic-specific risks, including freezing damage, transport delays caused by ice besetting and icebreaker escort waiting times, vibration damage resulting from ice collisions, and complex loss scenarios involving Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and crude oil cargoes. It also examines governance deficiencies, such as the weak linkage between the Polar Code and insurance underwriting, the absence of standardized assessment criteria for political and geopolitical risks, and the insufficient accumulation and sharing of Arctic marine casualty data. This study proposes Arctic-specific endorsements for freezing damage and delay, the incorporation of Polar Code compliance as a condition of cover, dynamic premium setting based on POLARIS risk indices and real-time satellite sea-ice data, the standardization of a Transit Denial Endorsement, and the creation of an Arctic marine casualty data-sharing platform. It concludes that sustainable maritime transport in the Arctic Ocean 3.0 era requires an integrated insurance and data-governance framework responsive to Arctic-specific risks

러시아의 북극횡단운송회랑(TATC) 추진 전략과 지정학・지경학적 함의

변현섭 한양대학교 아태지역연구센터 2026 중소연구 Vol.50 No.1

본 연구는 러시아가 기존의 북극항로(NSR) 개념을 확장하여 추진 중인 ‘북극횡단운송회랑’(Trans-Arctic Transport Corridor, TATC)의 전략적 배경과 그에 따른 지정학적・지경학적 함의를 분석하는 데 목적이 있다. 21세기 기후 변화와 기술 진보는 북극을 단순한 지리적 장벽에서 역동적인 전략 공간으로 변모시켰으며, 러시아는 이를 국가 발전의 중추적 토대로 인식하고 있다. 이론적으로 본 논문은 매킨더(Mackinder)의 심장지대설과 스파이크먼(Spykman)의 주변지대설을 북극 환경 변화에 맞추어 재해석한다. 과거 러시아를 가두는 ‘네 번째 벽’이었던 북극이 해빙과 기술 발전을 통해 ‘열린 피벗(Pivot)’으로 전환됨에 따라, 러시아가 내륙 심장지대 국가에서 해양 강국으로 구조적 전환을 꾀하고 있음을 고찰한다. 분석 결과, TATC는 단순한 해상 항로를 넘어 해상(NSR), 철도(TSR・BAM), 내륙 수로(오비・예니세이・레나강)를 유기적으로 결합한 ‘심리스(seamless) 멀티모달’ 물류 체계를 지향한다. 특히, 2025년 블라디미르 푸틴 대통령의 연설과 지시사항을 통해 확인된 TATC 전략은 국영기업 로사톰(Rosatom)을 중심으로 한 제도적 거버넌스 구축, 차세대 원자력 쇄빙선단(프로젝트 22220 및 10510) 확보, 그리고 서방의 제재를 우회하기 위한 중국・인도 등 ‘우호국’과의 파트너십 강화를 핵심 동력으로 삼고 있다. 지정학적으로 TATC는 NATO의 북진에 대응한 북극의 ‘요새화’와 대외 봉쇄망 우회를 위한 전략적 출구 역할을 수행하며, 지경학적으로는 수에즈 운하를 대체하는 글로벌 공급망의 회복탄력성 확보 및 에너지・자원 수출의 지배력 강화를 목표로 한다. 결론적으로 TATC는 러시아가 변화하는 기후와 국제정치 질서 속에서 생존과 번영을 위해 선택한 필연적인 역사적 전략이며, 향후 유라시아 안보 지형과 글로벌 물류 패권을 재편할 핵심 변수가 될 것이다. 이에 따라 한국 또한 이러한 북극 운송 환경 변화에 대응하는 전략적 포지셔닝이 필요함을 시사한다. This study aims to analyze the strategic background and the geopolitical and geoeconomic implications of the ‘Trans-Arctic Transport Corridor (TATC)’, an expansion of the existing Northern Sea Route (NSR) concept promoted by Russia. In the 21st century, climate change and technological progress have transformed the Arctic from a mere geographical barrier into a dynamic strategic space, which Russia recognizes as a pivotal foundation for national development. Theoretically, this paper reinterprets Mackinder's Heartland Theory and Spykman's Rimland Theory in light of Arctic environmental changes. It examines Russia's structural transition from a landlocked heartland state to a maritime power, as the Arctic—once the “fourth wall” enclosing Russia—shifts into an “open pivot” through ice melting and technological advancement. The analysis reveals that TATC aims for a “seamless multimodal” logistics system that organically integrates maritime routes (NSR), railways (TSR・BAM), and inland waterways (Ob, Yenisei, and Lena rivers). In particular, the TATC strategy, confirmed through President Vladimir Putin's 2025 speeches and directives, is driven by the establishment of institutional governance centered on the state corporation Rosatom, the procurement of next-generation nuclear icebreaker fleets (Projects 22220 and 10510), and the strengthening of partnerships with “friendly nations” such as China and India to bypass Western sanctions. Geopolitically, TATC serves as a strategic exit to bypass external containment and as part of the “fortification” of the Arctic in response to NATO's northward expansion. Geoeconomically, it aims to secure the resilience of the global supply chain as an alternative to the Suez Canal and to strengthen dominance in energy and resource exports. In conclusion, TATC is an inevitable historical strategy chosen by Russia for survival and prosperity amidst a changing climate and international political order, and it will be a key variable reshaping the Eurasian security landscape and global logistics hegemony. Accordingly, this study suggests that South Korea also needs strategic positioning to respond to these changes in the Arctic transport environment.

신지정학과 북극해 레짐: 한국과 노르웨이의 협력을 중심으로

정보라 ( Bo Ra Jeong ) 한국외국어대학교 글로벌정치연구소 2014 글로벌정치연구 Vol.7 No.2

The purpose of this research is to present that the cooperation between Korea and Norway on the Arctic issues is a result of geo-strategies of each state and that their geo-strategies contributed to reinforcement of the Arctic Council. Therefore, this research aims to show that in analyzing the Arctic Council the New-geopolitics as well as regime theory is useful. This paper is composed of five chapters. The chapter 1 introduces the purpose and method of this research. In the chapter 2, geopolitics and regime theory are described as theoretical backgrounds. The chapter 3 includes geopolitical values of the Arctic Ocean and geo-strategy of Korea and Norway. The chapter 4 analyzes the Arctic Council as one of the international regimes related to the Arctic Ocean by using the New-geopolitical thoughts. The chapter 5 is the conclusion of this paper that summarized the results of this research. The results of this research can be summarized by three points. First, the cooperation between Korea and Norway is being enhanced and it contributes to the enforcement of the Arctic Council. Second, as previously mentioned, the cooperation is a result of the indirect method to control the region, the Arctic. Third, in addition to regime theory, the New-geopolitical thinking is also useful to explain international regimes related to the Arctic Ocean.

The Geopolitical Transformation of the Arctic under Climate Change

Filiberto Oropeza Fabián 한국해양대학교 국제해양문제연구소 2026 해항도시문화교섭학 Vol.- No.37

This study examines the new political dynamics of the Arctic from the perspective of climate change and its geopolitical effects, which have transformed the region into one of the most relevant strategic scenarios of the twenty-first century. Climate change and the progressive melting of polar ice are facilitating access to shipping routes and existing natural resources, reshaping the Arctic from a historically isolated region into an emerging and uncertain geopolitical space. This transformation fundamentally challenges classical geopolitical theories, both land-based and maritime, and gives rise to new approaches to explaining the growing competition in the region. The Arctic’s strategic importance is closely linked to new shipping routes, which in the future could connect the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, as well as to the exploitation of hydrocarbons and rare earth minerals, which are essential for industry, energy, transportation, and communications. The study highlights the role of the eight Arctic states, which maintain sovereignty and governance over the region, while various non-Arctic states and global powers, particularly the United States, Russia, and China, increasingly expand their strategic interests. Special attention is given to Greenland as a key geopolitical space due to its location, natural resources, and security implications. The findings illustrate that the Arctic is becoming an area of growing uncertainty, tension, and competition, where environmental protection and governance must be balanced through international cooperation and diplomatic solutions

CONNECTING EURASIA AND THE AMERICAS: EXTENSION OF THE HISTORICAL SILK ROAD AND ITS GEOPOLITICAL IMPLICATIONS

ERDEM, CAGRI Academia Via Serica 2017 Acta Via Serica Vol.2 No.2

The Bering Strait crossing would link the entirety of Eurasia to the entirety of the Americas, and it can be seen as a natural extension of the historical Silk Road. There are some immense geopolitical benefits to such a project. It would bring about a profound and lasting change to the global economic and political outlook. The most valued function of the Bering Strait crossing and the extension of the associated railroad network would be to release the massive natural resources trapped underneath the tundra and permafrost for the benefit of Russia and the world. Moreover, the railroad project(s) would also build development corridors in those underdeveloped parts of the Russian Federation. The development of the resources and their rapid transportation to the global markets would contribute not only to the overall development of the region but also would be valuable for the resource-poor countries of Northeast Asia such as Japan, Korea, and China (relative to its economic size). This paper will explore the possible impact(s) of the Bering Strait crossing as a formidable infrastructure project for the economic development of the Russian Far East (RFE) from the Russian perspective under the frame of geopolitics. Furthermore, it will equally scrutinize the implications for the adjacent countries in the region.

북극 거버넌스와 한국의 북극정책 방향

김민수 한국해양수산개발원 2020 해양정책연구 Vol.35 No.1

Arctic governance is changing with fast-melting sea ice, increasing possibility of access to natural resources and facilitating Arctic sea route in the Arctic Ocean. Against this backdrop, this study introduces the concept and characteristics of Arctic governance and analyzes the current changes in Arctic governance from the environmental, normative, economic and political perspectives. In addition, the future of Arctic governance is prospected by scenarios, focusing on the role of the Arctic Council. This study also suggests direction for Arctic policy of Korea considering the changing Arctic governance. In particular, this study proposes that Korea should make an efforts to build a ‘multi-dimensional cooperation platform’ and lead the ‘Arctic epistemic community’ under the assumption of stable governance and also strengthen solidarity with various Arctic stakeholders to cope with unstable Arctic governance. 최근 기후변화와 지구온난화로 인해 북극의 ‘역동성’이 커지고 있으며, 북극해 해빙(解氷)은 인류에게 ‘양날의 검’이 되고 있다. 북극해를 중심으로 한 환경과 생태계, 북원주민의 삶에 우려할만한 영향을 미치고 있는 반면, 북극의 바닷길이 열리고, 북극의 풍부한 자원 개발 가능성은 커지고 있다. 이러한 북극의 환경변화는 북극권 국가와 국제사회의 인식 변화에 영향을 미치고 있으며, 북극을 어떻게 하면 잘 관리하고 활용할 수 있을지에 대한 고민과 함께 북극거버넌스의 변화에도 적지 않는 영향을 미치고 있다. 특히 2019년은 북극이사회 역할과 북극 거버넌스 변화 논의를 촉발시킨 분수령이 된 해로 여겨진다. 제11차 북극이사회 각료회의에서 처음으로 정치적 이견으로 '공동선언문' 채택에 실패했으며, 북극이사회의 중요한 운영원리인 ‘북극 예외주의(Arctic Exceptionalism)’를 처음으로 깬 사례로 받아들여진다. 여기에 트럼프 미 대통령의 그린란드 매입발언('19.8)은 북극 지정학을 재조명하는 계기가 되었다. 이러한 배경 하에 본 논문은 북극 거버넌스 개념 및 특징을 소개하고, 북극 거버넌스의 현재 변화 양상을 환경, 규범, 경제, 정치적 측면에서 고찰하고, 오란 영 교수의 분류 기존에 근거해 북극 거버넌스가 현재 어떻게 변화고 있는지를 분석하였다. 그리고 이러한 변화가 앞으로 어떠한 방향으로 흘러갈 지에 대해 ‘북극이사회의 역할 변화’를 중심으로 12개의 시나리오별로 정의하고 이 가운데 ‘국제기구 및 옵서버 역할 확대를 기반으로 북극이사회 기능이 강화되는 시나리오’가 우리나라 북극 정책 추진에 있어 가장 바람직한 시나리오로 보았다. 특히 향후 북극 거버넌스의 변화에 맞춰 우리나라가 기여할 수 있는 북극정책 방안으로는 안정적 거버넌스 환경에서는 다차원 협력플랫폼 구축 및 활용, 북극 인식공동체 주도를 불안정한 북극 거버넌스에 있어서는 세계 정치와 북극 정치 연계에 대비하고 다양한 북극 이해관계자들과의 연대 강화를 통한 안정화 장치 마련을 제시하였다.