네덜란드 개혁교회와 일본 선교

백종구(Chong Ku Paek) 장로회신학대학교 세계선교연구원 2018 선교와 신학 Vol.46 No.-

본 연구의 목적은 17세기 네덜란드 개혁교회의 일본 선교를 네덜란드 동인도회사(Verenigde Oost India Compagnie [Dutch East India Company], 이하 VOC)의 현지 일본인 선교와 네덜란드인 회사원들 목회를 중심으로 연구하여 그 전략을 밝히고, 네덜란드인 회사원들의 종교생활을 재구성하는 것이다. 또 VOC의 일본 선교 전략이 아시아 한인 디아스포라 목회 전략을 결정하는 데 유익한 점을 찾는 것이다. 본 연구는 주제와 관련된 시기 일본 막부의 해상무역과 그리스도교 금지 정책과 개혁교회의 일본 선교에 대해 기존 연구를 참고할 것이다. 특히 VOC의 현지 일본인 선교와 네덜란드인 회사원의 목회 전력에 대해서는 네덜란드어 자료를 수집하여 해석할 것이다. 본 연구는 서론에 이어 2장에서 16-17세기 네덜란드 개혁교회의 탄생과 발전, VOC 해상무역의 일본 진출, 3장에서 VOC의 일본 선교 전략, 4장에서 일본 데지마 체류 VOC 네덜란드인 회사원들의 종교생활을 기술할 것이다. 본 연구의 결과는 네덜란드 개혁교회의 일본 선교는 해상무역으로 일본에 진출한 VOC에 의해 추진되었으며, VOC는 상업적 이윤과 종교의무(복음전파)의 두 마리 토끼를 잡기위해 일본 막부의 반그리스도교적 요구와 네덜란드 개혁교회의 선교와 목회의 요구를 절충하여 다음과 같은 이중전략을 세웠다. 1) VOC는 상업적 이윤을 위해 상업(해상무역)과 종교(현지 일본인 선교)를 분리시키고, 일본인 선교를 자제한다. 2) VOC는 네덜란드의 신민으로서 종교의무를 수행하기 위해 신앙생활의 공적 영역과 사적 영역을 구분하고, 공적 영역의 신앙생활을 가능한 자제하게 하고 사적 영역의 신앙생활을 권면한다. 끝으로 동인도회사의 현지 일본인 선교와 네덜란드인 목회 전략이 주는 교훈은 한인 디디아스포라의 목회는 한인 디아스포라의 사업적 성공과 영적 건강 유지를 위해 현지의 상황과 선교를 지원하는 단체(예를 들면 한국 교회나 특정 선교회)의 요구를 고려해야 한다. This study focuses on the Dutch Reformed Church’s mission to Japan through the VOC(Verenigde Oost India Compagnie [Dutch East India Company], below VOC). Specifically it aims to describe the VOC’s strategy of mission to the Japanese and pastoral care of the Dutch in Japan. The VOC, which played a significant role in communicating between the Reformed Church and the Shogunate(1609-1799), came to form an strategy of mission to the Japanese and pastoral care by reconciling the Shogunate policy of prohibiting Christianity on the Japanese soil and the Reformed Church’s policy of propagating Calvinism to Japan and preserving VOC’s employee’s faith in Japan. This study is based on the literary materials provided by previous studies on the Shogunate policy of maritime trade with the Dutch and Christianity in Japan, and the Reformed Church’s idea of foreign mission to Japan. In particular it collects, and interprets, the materials in the Dutch for the Reformed Church’s ideas of foreign mission to Japanese and pastoral care of the Dutch at Dejima in Japan. Following the introduction, this study describes the birth and development of the Reformed Church in the Netherlands during the 16th and 17th centuries and VOC’s beginnings of maritime trade with Japan. Then it deals with the discourse by the Reformed Church and the VOC on the issues concerning the Reformed Church’s ideas of mission to the Japanese and pastoral care of VOC’s Dutch employees. Finally it reconstructs the religious life of the Dutch at Dejima in Japan. The study’s results as followed: The Reformed Church’s ideas of mission to the Japanese and pastoral care of VOC’s Dutch employees that materialized in the VOC’s strategy of mission to the Japanese and pastoral care of the Dutch in Japan, which was carried out in terms of the religious life of the Dutch at Dejima in Japan. The VOC created the twofold strategy for its commercial profit and its religious obligation: for its commercial profit the VOC separated its maritime trade with Japan and its foreign mission to Japan; as well for its religious obligation it prohibited the Calvinistic faith in the public sphere but preserved it in private sphere in daily life among its Dutch employees at Dejima in Japan.

동인도 회사와 성경 번역

유경하 한국복음주의선교신학회 2023 복음과 선교 Vol.64 No.4

17세기는 유럽과 아시아의 정치적 ‧ 경제적 ‧ 종교적 지형도가 급격하게 변화한 시기였다. 스페인과 포르투갈을 제치고 아시아로 진출한 네덜란드와 영국은 가톨릭 국가였던 두 나라와 구별되는 정책과 조직을 갖추었고 선교방식에 있어서도 차이를 보였다. 네덜란드와 영국의 아시아 진출은 동인도 회사라는 상업조직을 통해 이루어졌고, 회사의 최대 목표는 주주의 이윤 창출이었지만 자국의 종교적 상황으로부터 영향을 받았다. 네덜란드 동인도 회사와 영국 동인도 회사는 각각 도르트 총회와 영국 부흥운동이라는 신학적 배경과 연결되어 있었고 이러한 상황은 이들이 진출한 아시아 국가들에서 독특한 사역적 결실들을 맺게 하였다. 동인도 회사가 기독교 진리에 충실한 것은 아니었지만, 네덜란드의 개혁주의와 영국의 복음주의의 영향을 받은 목회자와 성도들, 그리고 동인도 회사 내 채플린들과 소수 직원들의 지속적인 연합과 노력으로 아시아의 여러 언어들로 성경 번역이 이루어졌다. 채플린들과 직원들은 온갖 열악한 환경 속에서 말레이어, 힌디어, 아랍어, 페르시아어, 중국어 등의 언어로 성경을 번역했고, 그 과정에서 네덜란드 동인도 회사와 영국 동인도 회사는 소속 채플린들과 직원들의 지위와 안전을 보장하는 보호막이 되었다. 3세기에 걸쳐 진행된 성경 번역은 아시아 지역의 복음 전파에 커다란 디딤돌을 놓으며 선교의 위대한 세기로 연결되었다. The 17th century was a period characterized by significant and rapid transformations in the political, economic, and religious landscapes of both Europe and Asia. Netherlands and England, as they ventured into Asia, surpassing Spain and Portugal, adopted policies and organizational structures that set them apart from the two Catholic countries. Additionally, they exhibited differences in their missionary approaches. The Asian expansion of the Netherlands and England was carried out through commercial organizations known as the Dutch and English East India Companies, with the primary objective of these companies being profit generation for shareholders. However, they were also influenced by the religious circumstances of their respective homelands. The Dutch East India Company and the English East India Company were each associated with distinct theological backgrounds, such as the Dortsche Synod and the English Revival movement. These circumstances led to unique missionary outcomes in the Asian countries they ventured into. The East India Companies were not steadfast in adhering to Christian truths. However, the Reformers in the Netherlands and Evangelicals in England translated the Bible into various Asian languages through continuous collaboration and effort with a small number of chaplains and employees within the companies. The chaplains and employees of the companies translated the Bible into various languages, including Malay, Hindi, Arabic, Persian, Chinese, and more, amidst challenging environments. In this process, the East India Companies had served as protective shields for their chaplains and employees, ensuring their status and safety. The three centuries-long Bible translations had become significant milestones in the spread of the Gospel in the Asian region and connected to a great era in missionary endeavors.

네덜란드동인도회사의 팽호 점거 시도와 좌절(1622-1624)

채경수(Chae, Kyung-soo) 동양사학회 2024 동양사학연구 Vol.169 No.-

This paper analyzes the attempts of Dutch East India Company’s (VOC) to expand into the Pescadores from 1622 to 1624 and how the Ming Dynasty’s counterattacks thwarted these efforts.<BR/> The VOC attempted to occupy the Pescadores with three strategic objectives. The first was to secure a trading base to open the Chinese market, the second was to neutralize the trade network of its competitor, Spain, and the third was to secure the labor lacking in Batavia.<BR/> The expedition unfolded in two phases. The first phase was the assault on Macao, and the second was the assault on the Pescadores. The assault on the Pescadores was not an alternative to the failed Macao assault; rather, it was a fundamental part of the plan that would proceed regardless of the success or failure of the Macao operation. Following the failure of Macao assault, the successful occupation of the Pescadores became a crucial factor in determining the success or failure of the expedition.<BR/> The Batavian government and Cornelis Reijersen, the commander of the expedition, were confident in the occupation of the Pescadores and the opening of the Chinese market. This was because they believed that the Ming Dynasty’s maritime defenses were very weak and that there was a strong desire for trade among Chinese merchants. However, the situation at the time was different from their expectations. Chinese merchants were skeptical of trading with the VOC, and the Ming forces possessed both the willingness and the capability to defend the Pescadores, an important military stronghold, against the VOC.<BR/> Contrary to expectations, when negotiations did not proceed smoothly, Reijersen attempted to extract concessions from the Ming Dynasty through active military projection. However, this backfired, prompting the Ming Dynasty to shift its approach from diplomatic negotiations to military retaliation. Reijersen and the Batavian government also anticipated that negotiations would fail and that they would ultimately achieve their objectives through war. However, they did not foresee that the Ming Dynasty would proactively mobilize its military forces to recapture the Pescadores.<BR/> The Ming command was aware of their military inferiority. The key to success was for the Ming landing troops to reach the Pescadores without being intercepted by the VOC fleet. Familiar with the geography of the Pescadores, the Ming forces completed an encirclement through cautious troop maneuvers over six months. Faced with the threat of being starved into submission within the encirclement, the VOC expeditionary force had no choice but to abandon the Pescadores and relocate their base to Taiwan. The opening of the Chinese market also became a distant prospect.

특집 : 세계화의 역사와 패권 경쟁 ; 네덜란드 동인도회사와 아시아 교역: 세계화의 초기 단계

주경철 ( Kyung Chul Jou ) 서울대학교 미국학연구소 2005 미국학 Vol.28 No.-

네덜란드 동인도회사의 기록을 통해 본 明末의 貿易構造― 1620년대 月港 무역의 변화와 澎湖事件 ―

한지선 명청사학회 2013 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.40

In the early 17th century, The Ming Dynasty had two gates for commerce, but one was only for the Chinese while the other was controled by Portugal. The rule that no trade was allowed in any Chinese area without permission was equated with taboo to the Dutch. However, the fact that the Dutch withdrew from Penghu did not mean that the Ming Dynasty can control over costal area. Behind the conflict between VOC and government officials, there was negotiation on commerce. However, negotiations with the officials did not have constant binding power and might change according to the situation as they were temporary. Xunfu(巡撫) Nan, Ju-yi(南居益) negated what had been negotiated and prohibited trade with the Dutch. Nam Geo-Ik insisted on exclusive rights over the territory, besides he intended to secure a sea route to Manila and protect trading rights in Yue-xiang(月港) to maintain overseas trade. Although administrative or military officers stuck to the principles in political or military terms, they tried to find peaceful measures rather than military solutions. This direction was decided on through adjusting to interests in overseas trade. Meanwhile, merchants who were engaged in overseas trade had serious losses due to the Hai-jin(海禁) and the violent rambles of VOC. So they sought peace between them. In particular, Li, Dan(李旦) was charged with finding a way for diplomacy and commerce between VOC and Chinese officials, and mediated conflicts between them. Also Xu, Xin-Su (許心素) gained a position as an official in Taiwan trade, served as a mediator for non-tribute countries and secured trade space through creating a new trade custom.

네덜란드 동인도연합회사의 동아시아 진출에 보이는 한국ㆍ일본관계 연구의 현황과 문제점

신동규 전북사학회 2007 전북사학 Vol.0 No.30

네덜란드-일본 혼혈여성 ‘사라 스펙스’의 인생사 기록과 네덜란드 동인도회사

권혁래 ( Kwon Hyeokrae ) 건국대학교 동화와번역연구소 2024 동화와 번역 Vol.48 No.0

In this paper, I examine how the life story of Sarah Specx, a Dutch-Japanese woman of mixed race, was recorded in the first half of the 17th century, with the Dutch East India Company (VOC) serving as the central connection. Sarah Specx refers to a scandalous incident involving Sarah Specx, a mixed-race woman, and a young officer of the VOC that took place at Batavia Castle in 1629. This work became known to the public in the late 20th century when it was included in a collection of Indonesian folk tales. Sarah Specx' short but dramatic life, preserved through tales and historical documents, serves as a lens to explore the Asian cities with which the VOC traded in the 17th century, while shedding light on the challenges and experiences of a mixed-race woman during this period. It shows some of the changes that the Dutch East India Company brought to Asian life in the first half of the 17th century, and the new connectivity of Asia.

네덜란드동인도회사와 아시아 해양 세계의 변화

주경철 ( Kyung-chul Jou ) 한국서양사연구회 2021 서양사연구 Vol.- No.65

The article has the objective of reviewing the ‘Steensgaard Thesis’ critically. According to Steensgaard, the Dutch East India Company (de Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie: VOC) could secure the maximum economic profit due to the fact that the it employed violence for rational purposes, while the Portuguese tended to use their military forces for exploitative purposes, only to gain limited achievements. He further stressed that the Dutch performance of the ‘Country Trade’ through efficient trading networks on Asian waters caused a ‘capitalistic’ change onto Asian commercial systems. However, these arguments have since faced criticism from many scholars. It is now commonly believed that the VOC was not in a position to dominate all their staying regions militarily, but rather tried hard to survive by adapting to local situations. In Japan, which was an important source of silver and copper, in particular, the company even had to accept submissive conditions. Nevertheless, it is clear that Dutch merchants’ entry into Asia linked the Asian economy to the global world system during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. (Seoul National University / joukc@snu.ac.kr)

네덜란드공화국 건국기의 ‘통합의 정치’: 종교, 정치, 경제를 중심으로

이동수 경희대학교 인류사회재건연구원 2022 OUGHTOPIA Vol.37 No.1

It is necessary that current Korean politics filled with social segmentation and division should refer to the Dutch ‘politics of integration’ initially originated from the ‘polder model’ in the ancient times and firmly established at the age of founding the Dutch Republic. ‘Politics of integration’ was composed of three aspects at that time. First, on the religious level, Calvinism was the core with the freedom of religion and tolerance under the principle of the separation between politics and religion. Second, on the political level, confederation was chosen as political system, in which the right of veto was given to each of seven self-governing states. Third, on the economic level, the Dutch East India Company was launched with the coordination of Geneal States, with the fact that each of six branches could execute their own businesses. In conclusion, however, we should remember that the Dutch ‘politics of integration’ was the effect of the assymetric dynamics of integration in which there were such cores as Calvinism, the states of Holland and Zeeland and mercantilism. 사회적 분절과 분열이 심한 우리나라는 ‘통합의정치’가 특징인 네덜란드를 참고할 필요가 있다. 네덜란드의 ‘통합의 정치’는 고대 ‘간척지 모델’에서부터 기원하여 16-17세기 네덜란드공화국 건국시 확립되었다. 당시 ‘통합의 정치’는 세측면에서 잘 나타나는데, 먼저 종교적으로는 칼벵교를 중심으로 삼되 정교분리 원칙 하에 가톨릭이나 유대교 등에게 종교적 자유와 관용이 용인되었다. 둘째 정치적으로는 7개의 자치 주들이 연합해 연합국가제를 이루고 전국의회에서최종 결정을 했으나, 지역 자치의회의 거부권과 자치권은 허용되었다. 셋째 경제적으로는 통합 동인도회사를 설립해 기업들의 지나친 경쟁을 조정하고 경제발전을 도모하면서도 각 지사들의 독립성은 유지되었다. 그러나 이러한 ‘통합의 정치’는 단순히 구성원 간의 평등한 연합이아니라, 어떤 코어(근간) 예컨대 정신적으로는칼벵주의, 정치적으로는 홀란트주와 제일란트주, 경제적으로는 해외무역을 주도하는 통합 동인도회사를 중심으로 각 개체들이 협력과 조정을 통해 연합한 것으로서 ‘통합의 동학’의 결과이다.

생존을 위한 과학이자 국가를 위한 과학이었던 항해술

정원(Jung Won) 한국서양사연구회 2013 서양사연구 Vol.0 No.49

The northern Netherlands became a center of global trade economy in late 16th century. The establishment of VOC and success in long distance trade were said to be the main factors of rapid development of the Netherlands. However, one specific knowledge was needed necessary for VOC to function properly, and for merchants to make huge profits from the trade. That knowledge was navigation. Many mathematicians made efforts to improve navigation in the Netherlands and Simon Stevin was one of them. Stevin was the inventor of decimal fraction system and he was both a teacher and a military officer of Maurits van Nassau who was the most influential political figure near around 1600. In this article, I will discuss the main problems and characteristics of navigation circa 1600 by focusing on some works of Stevin. Making the safe and fast navigation was not an easy matter. Sailors who were headed for Asia or America needed informations on the sea route and weather including seasonal wind. They also wanted nautical maps which can be used easily in the sea. To find the destination and to calculate their own location in the sea, sailors had to learn methods measuring both longitude and latitude. Instruments used in navigation were also needed to be developed. Stevin made great efforts to find solutions for all such matters in cooperation with Maurits. Navigational knowledge in the early modern period had the synthetic character with many substructure, therefore, the knowledge needed to be organized to be used in the real long distance trade. VOC and the State General of the Netherlands conducted those organizing works by gathering informations, composing committees, establishing educational institutions, and supporting mathematicians such as Stevin. Scientific and technical efforts of the mathematicians and deep interests of the state on navigation were one of the essential prerequisite for the Netherlands grasping economic hegemony in the 17th century.