인도양 무역 네트워크와 문명 공간 ― 西海, 西洋, 그리고 西域의 개념을 중심으로 ―

한지선 명청사학회 2017 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.48

This study speculated on the world of the Indian Ocean through terms of 西海(xihai), 西洋(xiyang) and 西域(xiyu). Originally, 西海(xihai) was a term with directionality based on Chinese world view, but it indicates the Mediterranean Sea, the Arabian Sea and the Red Sea as physical space along with cultivation of Silk Road on land. The Indian Ocean was recognized as 西海(xihai) or 西南海(xinanhai) in the Song and Yuan periods. the concept of 서양 has directionality starting from the coastal waters of Fujian and Guangdong, but the concepts of the east and the west that was examined from 『南海志』 published in 大德 years indicate the range central port cities had influence on and is spacial as it covers even religious and ethnic conflicts and cooperation. That is, 西洋(xiyang) indicates the Indian Ocean, but it also means a trade network in this area. The term of 西域(xiyu) is related to appearance of large historical stage. The Islam that began to grow through the Middle Ages was a center of wide historical stage over Europe and Asia under Mongol Empire. The Indian Ocean network was expanded inland and a key factor when it connected different civilizations was reciprocal trade. The Indian Ocean network connected local products each subcategory wanted to import. In particular, cotton which was produced in India was spread over each civilization through trade via the Indian Ocean network. 西域(xiyu) was a wide economic area where different civilizations were linked to guaranty reciprocal trade, not an east-west passage. The Indian Ocean network covered the Arabian Ocean along the western and southern coast of India and connected the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea on land via the Persian Gulf. It connected to the Arabian Ocean along the eastern sea of Africa, which formed a big link. Local products from East Asian products via large and small islands on the Indian Ocean, India, Java and Srivijaya empire were accumulated on this central link. It also connected Arabia, Asia Minor, the western and northern area of Africa, Iberia, India, West India and Yunnan civilizations. Port cities of each civilization were converged in a big link of the Indian Ocean while leading area of subcategories by connecting hinterlands. The term of 西洋(xiyang) was used when Chinese people explored such Indian trade networks and joined in them through the oceans. Important passages to the Indian Ocean were Guang-zhou and Ch'uan-zhou. They developed greatly as big cities that had China and East Asia as hinterlands.

면(綿)의 세계사와 근대문명

이영석 ( Young Suk Lee ) 영국사학회 2015 영국연구 Vol.34 No.-

Giorgio Riello makes an effort to understand the formation of the modern world through the history of cotton in his recent work, Cotton: The Fabric that Made the Modern World (2013). The most important change in the history of cotton appeared during the transitional age from the centrifugal world-system initiated by India to the modern centripetal one. He emphasizes the role of Indian Ocean trade and Indian handicraft in the process. In an attempt to overcome the existing Eurocentric perspective, he answers the question of how the world changed Lancashire rather than ‘how Lancashire changed the world’. Some historians who have emphasized the dominance of the English cotton industry attach importance to spinning and weaving. According to these historians, this dominance was due to the mechanization of the two processes. In constrast to this view, Riello contends that the competitiveness of Indian cotton textiles stemmed not only from the skills of spinning and weaving but from the excellence of the finishing process and printing. The excellent reputation Indian cotton enjoyed was based upon its color and design. English cotton manufacturers underwent a long process in order to learn the soft knowledge and skills from Indian cotton textiles and handicraft industry. According to Riello, Britain`s Industrial Revolution was greatly influenced by the Indian Ocean trade and furthermore, by Indian traditions and knowledge. The purpose of this paper is to present Riello`s view on the formation of the modern world, and to examine whether his views would supplement existing interpretations of the Industrial Revolution.

『혼일강리역대국도지도(混一疆理歷代國都之圖)』상에 비친 인도양 내비게이션 - 대륙 조각들의 배치 맥락을 중심으로 -

한지선(Han, Ji-Seon) 동양사학회 2024 동양사학연구 Vol.169 No.-

This study aimed to seek the place names of the areas that were transcribed as islands located in the Indian Ocean at the 『Gangrido』 and understand the arrangement context. To serch for the place names, this study investigated Chinese historical materials and travel records of diverse cultural zones and intended to interpret them according to the capital names of corresponding areas. As a result, it seemed that Nobal(奴發) and Seohyol(西穴) were originated from the names of the Nabhanis and the Scier of South Arabia. It was assumed that Ari(阿里) was from the transliteration of Ali and in particular, it was from the Sanaa under the influence of the Shia Ismaili among Yemen powers. Accordingly, Marongsa(麻龍沙), Noam(奴啱), Mahaphapsuk(馬合哈叔) and Happala(合八牙) as the names of the islands could be interpreted as Malindi, Nubia, Cairo and Alexandria. Cairo was as the capital of the Fatimids who belonged to the Shia Ismaili Family, controlled the business networks connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Red Sea from the 10th century to the 12th century. Therefore, it was assumed that the places named islands were parts of the continent and arrangement of the pieces, the South India, the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, the east coast of Kenya, Cairo and Alexandria of the Africa was understood as the merchant networks that actively worked at the Colas and the Fatimids.<BR/> For one thing, the part of the continent was named as islands as geographical knowledge was accumulated through sailing. The cases that inland and peninsula were misunderstood as islands were shown both in Islamic and Chinese data in the 12th and 13th centuries. In comparison with the world map of Idrisi, the Gangrido presented more specific and exact and newer information on South India and Bengal Sea. The characteristic was inherited to the 『Zenghe Chart(鄭和航海圖)』. It indicates that the two charts were from the same family. For acknowledging the existence of the Indian Sea Chart before the 『Zenghe Chart』, the trace could be found in the pieces of continent in the 『Ganglido』. The other focus was given on the fact that the continent pieces were influenced by Monsoon season. It was assumed that the geographical concept in respect Monsoon season was inherited from geographical recognition of Persian people in considering of etymology of ‘land above wind’ and ‘land below wind’. Accordingly, it is considered that geographical information on maritime affairs was originated from geographical recognition of Persia and that the pieces of continent were based on that Monsoon what was the most important factor to make the world of the Indian Ocean organized as trade network. At that time, South India, Arab and East African Coast worked as an important bridge to connect and a gate to the world. That is, it is concluded that the pieces of continent in respect to maritime affairs reflected trade networks formed as sailing routines and independent sailing navigation of merchants who worked at the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.

15세기 명・티무르제국 간의 조공무역과 인도양 교역 네트워크 ― 중국 문헌자료에 나타난 세계화의 단상 ―

한지선 명청사학회 2020 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.54

This paper aimed to examine the aspect of globalization, giving a focus on the issues of the lion tribute and the return through the sea route in the 19th reign year of Chenghua(成化). The issues of Timurid envoy's tribute and return through the sea route are able to be approached from the perspective of circulation of goods and information in the trade network of the Indian Ocean. In fact, the lion tribute incident in 1483 was not a diplomatic ritual but a trade act that was led only by Paryukwan, who understood the Eurasian trade network and the tribute compensation manual. In addition, the government's recognition of Paliuwan’s returning via Malacca is seen as a clue that the Ming government also understood that there was close exchange between the West Region(西域) and the ‘West Ocean(西洋)’ and did not set institutional restriction on it. The problem of the Timurid envoys' qualification was often pointed out from the Yongle(永樂) years. In fact, although tribute was a solemn ritual in East Asia, when it was seen from the point of view of merchants in Central Asia, tribute trade was one of the commercial activities that brought enormous profits. They were allowed to present the tribute by joining the envoy, and if not, they could trade their goods in the Ganzhou(甘州) and Suzhou(肅州) areas. Under the relationship between Ming and Timurid, merchants took advantage of diplomatic procedures or rituals to participate in tribute trade, and even when the unified power did not exist in inland Asia in the late 15th century, they approached China in an autonomous and common trade way. Inland envoys did seldom meet the diplomatic rituals that the Ming proposed or violated relevant regulations. Emissaries might not be real messengers as Ming's conservative officials suspected. However, they brought diverse goods including gold, silver, and jewelry from India, Arab, the Indian Ocean and even Africa. Even, items such as 鑌鐵刀, 鎖服, 撒哈剌, and 水晶椀 were overlapped with the tributes given by Calicut or Malacca. In addition, rose perfumes and glass products were produced and distributed throughout Europe and Asia These Timurid tribute lists showed that the Indian Ocean's maritime trade network linked by monsoons was connected to Europe, Africa, Central Asia, East Asia and even grasslands. The commercial achievements of Southeast Asia in the 1450s or 1500s are not denied, but the achievement of the sea is often confined to the sea. However, when the tribute list was looked at, it was understood that commercial energy of the trade network created by interaction between inland and coastal areas was transferred to deep inland areas such as Europe, West Asia, India, China, Russia and the Mongolian grasslands.

안경의 제작과 인도양 무역 네트워크 -중국 문헌 자료에 나타난 유리 제작을 중심으로-

한지선 대구사학회 2019 대구사학 Vol.135 No.-

We have been focusing on identifying where the center of eyeglasses manufacturing technology was through bibliographical information. However, eyeglasses are results of converging complicated technologies and knowledge with diverse materials. Due to the complexity, when they are manufactured on the spot, materials to be acquired and technological limits should be considered. When they are simply copied, they reflect regional characteristics and can not be faithful to their original functions as they have peculiar shapes and mass. Therefore, to identify the center of eyeglasses manufacturing, this study considered technological information relating to composition and general conditions including manufacturing of glass as a material of lens, and classified and examined glass manufacturing, development of optics, use of lens, and problems on eyeglasses manufacturing based on Chinese historical records. China had independent culture in glass manufacturing. However, as its lead glass was opaque, it was not suitable for lens of eyeglasses. Arabia had a special technology of glass manufacturing. It was that borax can make glass have more durability. The achievements of the Arab glass production would have been the assets gained from the interaction with civilizations linked to India or Bengal. Sichuan, Yunnan, India and Southeast Asia formed a special culture in the distribution of borax and the production of glass. Having dominated the Indian Ocean network, the Arabs were able to absorb extra information in glass making. Arabic glass manufacturing technology at that time deserves attention in that glass that was used for eyeglasses making must have high transparency and endure usual shocks. ‘Brille’ that meas lens of eyeglasses or spectacles in German was evolved from ‘Beryllos’ in Greek, Billur in Arabic or Balungr and Beryl in Hindi. Beryllos or Beryl is a rough stone of beryllium(element number 4) and indicates variants of all colors except emerald green and aquamarine blue in beryl variants. However, in addition to beryl, ‘bori(玻璃)’, which was one of the kinds of glass in medieval China, can also be a source of ‘Brille’. ‘bori(玻璃)’ products were made of special glass with high transparency from Arabia and India. Although sodium glass had more transparency than lead glass of China, eyeglasses made of Billur which was made in India and Arabia and called pseudo-crystal in Arabia had much more strength and durability than sodium glass. It seems that glass products made in Arabia were called crystal in the East and the West and had a specially dominant position in eyeglasses making. 안경은 복합적 기술과 지식의 산물로 다양한 물산을 병합한 결과물이지만 특히 유리 제작 기술의 발달과 밀접한 관계가 있다. 중국은 고대부터 독자적인 유리 제작 방법이 있었다. 그러나 중국의 납유리는 불투명해서 안경렌즈에 합당하지는 않았다. 송대 중국에는 광학지식과 함께 아랍의 유리제품이 대량으로 유입되었다. 10세기 무렵 인도양 교류 네트워크를 장악했던 아랍은 수정과 같은 맑고 내구성 있는 유리제품의 제작과 수출에서 독보적인 지위를 점하였다. 아랍이 유리 제작에서 이룬 성과는 인도 혹은 벵골 등으로 연결되는 문명권역과의 교류에서 확보된 자산이었다. 붕사의 유통과 관련하여 주목되는 곳은 사천과 운남, 티벳 등지이지만 이러한 기술을 활용하여 유리 제작 기술을 주도한 것은 아랍이었다. 아랍은 유리 제작에서 붕사를 활용하여 유리의 내구성과 투명도를 높였다. 독일어로 안경을 의미하는 브릴러(brille)라는 말은 그리스어 베릴로스(Beryllos), 아랍어 Billur(水晶) 등 녹주석의 보석 이름에서 전화한 것으로 보이지만 아랍의 유리로 알려진 玻璃(bori)나 붕사(borax) 역시 독일어 브릴러의 어원과 관계가 있었다. 파리나 왜납 등의 유리 제품들의 보급과 함께 인도양 곳곳에서는 유리 관련 공통의 용어들이 사용되었다. 이것은 13세기 해양과 육상이 광범위하게 연결되면서 나타난 현상이었다. 상품과 정보의 에너지에 추동되고 움직이는 이 광역적 문명공간이 ‘인도양 무역 네트워크’에 의해 출현한 ‘인도양 세계’이며 이 공간이 바로 안경이 제작된 요람이었다.

15세기 명-말래카의 관계와 인도양 교역 네트워크 ― 상품교환에서 나타나는 특징을 중심으로 ―

한지선 명청사학회 2023 명청사연구 Vol.- No.59

In the 15th century, Malacca was an international trading market where dealt a large amount of goods in wholesale. According to Chinese historical source, the name Gara(哥羅) or Karabusara(哥羅富沙羅) can be identified with Malacca. This area may have controlled the Strait of Malacca incompletely for the trade which had been linking Bengal region with the South China Sea direction. In particular, this place is identified as ‘Koli’, which is known as a tin producing area in Persian sources, but when the Srivijaya and Chola controlled in South East Asia in the 11~13centuries, this place was as a small city dependent on the Bengal economy. However, increasing trade demands, especially from the West Indian Ocean, and the emergence of Muslim traders in Southeast Asia, Malacca had set the staged at a new leap forward. It is is significant that the Ming approved Malaca as a independent state by formal ritual and Malacca had access to the Malabar coast beyond the Bengal economy about 1403. With Zhenghe(鄭和)’s expedition toward the Indian Ocean, Malacca dominated the East China Sea and secured a trade network extending west to India. This means that Malacca had three seas as its ‘hinterland’, including Bengal's economy, and China. And It could also be said that Indian Ocean's commodity network was integrated into the Malacca It is clear that the reason why Malacca had competitiveness was that it secured key strategic products from both China and India. In the relationship between Ming and Malacca, ‘tribute system’ was not interpreted in terms of Confucian rites or values, but seems more obvious when approached from a commercial perspective. In the late 15th century, exchanges between China and Malacca seemed irregular, but at this time, Malacca, which had have its own naval power, absorved Chinese goods through Java and Ryukyu, where trades and contributing with China were active and through smuggled trade in coastal areas of China. It still maintained its status as a China's outport on the Indian Ocean trade.

해적과 밀수: 아시아와 세계가 만나는 다른 길

주경철 명청사학회 2017 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.48

The Asian waters has been an arena of active long-distance trade from ancient times, due to the regular monsoon regime. Pirates and smuggling were inevitable, but their scale was not large enough to threaten the entire maritime order. The domination or complete control of the vast ocean as a whole was out of the question, so the Indian Ocean was an ‘oecumenical’ place where people can communicate across political, cultural, and religious boundaries. It was the external elements that strengthened her violent aspects. Portugal and the other Western powers tried to seize economic interests and political dominance. The gradual establishment of sea hegemony resulted in the growth of ‘modern’ piracy and smuggling. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, these changes came to the fore as pirates from Europe and North America flocked to the Indian Ocean. The age of global piracy has dawned. Asian local forces, meanwhile, have come to learn from Europe's armed forces and business practices. In this process, the goods circulated in the Asian world were exchanged with goods and precious metals of Europe-America. In this way, the European maritime forces made a great impact on the Asian order and linked it with global networks. Piracy and smuggling were an important channel for the Asian maritime world to connect with the global network and to advance globalization.