중학부 / 최근 중국에서의 명청시대 지역사연구 - 청대 광동지역 경제사연구를 중심으로 -

박기수(Kee Soo Park) 한국중국학회 1999 중국학보 Vol.39 No.-

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근대 중국의 해관(海關)과 『중국구해관사료(中國舊海關史料)(1859-1948)』

박기수 ( Kee Soo Park ) 수선사학회 2010 사림 Vol.0 No.37

The Qing Dynasty(淸朝) set up the maritime customs in order to manage the foreign trade and the tributary trade as well. The Kangxi Emperor(康熙帝) set up four maritime customs houses in the four provinces including Guangzhou(廣州) in 1684. In September 1853, due to the rebelling Shanghai Xiaodaohui(上海小刀會), the maritime customs in Shanghai wound down its operations. Wujianzhang(吳健彰), after negotiating with the consuls from Great Britain, America and France, had inspectors who were recommended by every consul assemble the Board of Inspectors. It was the first case in which a westerner was appointed to a customs house in China. From that moment, the right concerned with administrative controls was handed over to foreigners. According to the treaty signed between Great Britain, France, America and China in November 1958, the method to hire foreigners at the customs house was initiated at every port in the same way and the foreign tax accountant system was expanded to all over China. In May 1859, an Englishman, H. N. Lay, was appointed as Inspector General of Shanghai and he appointed another Englishman, H. T. Davies, as a Commissioner of customs to deal with businesses at the customs house in Shanghai. From that point, a practice that Inspector General appointed Commissioner of customs at every port was brought in. In addition, as R. Hart was appointed as Inspector General, the customs houses began to be well organized. The Chinese Maritime Customs published six types of publications, among which, Statistical Series was the most extensive and important publications. Moreover, Returns of Trade(貿易統計) and Reports of Trade(貿易報告) are the main contents of Statistical Series and they paved the way for research of the history about the Chinese modern trade as they were filed into Zhongguojiuhaiguanshiliao(中國舊海關史料). However, there are differences in compilation methods among Returns of Trade as well as Reports of Trade in accordance with their publishing time. In here, the characteristics of the compilation methods and the statistical data were divided into 6 periods to trace back the development and the changing process. ① 1859~1881: R. Hart, after being appointed as Inspector General, tried to organize the business of the maritime customs. Later, groundbreaking changes took place in the compilation methods and the record. ② 1864~1881: Reports of Trade at each maritime customs began to be published from 1865 and the nationwide trade statistics were complied from 1867. ③ 1882~1904: From 1882, compilations of Returns of Trade and Reports of Trade were published together. Moreover, Returns of Trade and Reports of Trade were translated into the Chinese language, the former was published from 1875 and the latter was published from 1889. ④ 1905~1919: From 1905, the reports of trade entered a new phase. From 1904, F.O.B.(Free on Board) and C.I.F.(Cost Insurance Freight) was applied to the statistical prices and the amount of trade became more accurate. In addition, the separate Chinese translation disappeared and the whole statistic books were changed into the style where the English language and the Chinese language co-existed. ⑤ 1920~1931: From 1920, the returns of trade and the reports of trade were not included. ⑥ 1932~1948: The change in the maritime trade statistics was an amendment of provenance and destination for trade items. Decennial Reports(十年報告) are the maritime customs reports which have the longest term period of the report object. They depicted developments of politics, society and cultures in the neighboring areas centered on the seat of the maritime customs. Total 5 compilations were published: the first covers 1882~1891, the second 1892~1901, the third 1902~1911, the fourth 1912~1921, and the fifth deals about what happened 1922~1931.

한국(韓國)과 중국(中國)의 자본주의맹아론(資本主義盟芽論)

박기수 ( Kee Soo Park ) 수선사학회 2007 사림 Vol.0 No.28

19 세기 전반 중국광서의 지주제와 항조

박기수(Park Kee Soo) 수선사학회 1991 사림 Vol.7 No.-

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명청시대 생산력과 상품유통의 발전 - 『 중국자본주의적맹아 』 에 대한 소개와 비판 -

박기수(Park Kee Soo) 수선사학회 1994 사림 Vol.10 No.-

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연구기행 : 중국동남연해 답사보고

박기수(Kee Soo Park) 명청사학회 1996 명청사연구 Vol.5 No.1

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분체공학, 유동충, 고분자, 재료(무기, 유기) : LiNiO2의 합성 최적조건 확립 및 과량의 리튬함량과 Al 도핑이 전기화학적 특성에 미치는 영향

박기수 ( Ki Soo Park ),조명훈 ( Myung Hun Cho ),박상호 ( Sang Ho Park ),선양국 ( Yang Kook Sun ),이윤성 ( Yun Sung Lee ),마사키요시오 ( Masaki Yoshio ),남기석 ( Kee Suk Nahm ) 한국화학공학회 2003 Korean Chemical Engineering Research(HWAHAK KONGHA Vol.41 No.1

LiNiO_2, Li_(1+x)NiO_2(x=0.00-0.05) and LiAl_yNi_(1-y)O_2 (y=0.00-0.3) powers were synthesized using a sol-gel method. To synthesize LiNiO_2 with a good electrochemical performance, the experiments were carried out as function of the molar ratio of adipic acid to total metal ions, excess Li content, and Al doping. The synthesized LiNiO_2 powders showed a good crystal quality when the molar ratio of adipic acid to total metal ions was 1.0. The analysis of gas composition evolved during the decomposition of gel precursors revealed that oxygen played an important role in improving the crystal quality of LiNiO_2 powders. All the prepared Li_(1+x)NiO_2 powders had a typical LiNiO_2 layered structure, but the electrochemical performance was degraded with the increasing the lithium content. Al-doped LiAl_yNi_(1-y)O_2 powdwers were better than LiNiO_2 powders in cyclicality though it showed a low initial discharge capacity. The Al doped LiAl_yNi_(1-y)O_2 powders presented a good electrochemical performance even at higher temperatures.

명청사학회 제7회 하계연구토론회논집 - 명청시대의 사회변화와 상인 : 청대 광동의 대외무역과 광동상인

박기수(Kee Soo Park) 명청사학회 1998 명청사연구 Vol.9 No.1

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< 명청사학회 제 9 회 하계연구토론회논문 > - 명청시대상품유통과 시장 : 청대 광동 광주부의 경제작물 재배와 농촌시장의 발전

박기수(Kee Soo Park) 명청사학회 2000 명청사연구 Vol.13 No.1

通過分析對子在淸代廣東的墟市, 我可見了特別在廣東省首府的廣州府上墟市的增加程度比其他的地方高得顯著地. 在珠江三角洲的主要地區裏, 卽在南海縣,順德縣,番우縣, 從明代後半到淸末, 墟市的數量增加了至少六倍或者十三倍. 我認爲這樣的墟市發展的原因在專業墟市的大量增加. 成豊 · 同治 · 光緖年間, 在南海縣新設墟市裏專業墟市占了百分之五十左右. 在順德縣新設墟市裏專業墟市占了百分之七十以上. 通過分析對于在專業墟市中的流通商品種類,我可見了流通商品種類的大宗是桑葉·○子·水果 ·蔬菜 ·香 ·花等經濟作物. 賣買經濟作物的專業墟市是110個, 卽所有的專業墟市中這樣的專業墟市占了百分之五十四. 賣買其他商品種類的專業墟市有生絲 · 綢緞 · 棉織物 · 手工藝品等手工業製品的(34個:17%),家畜的(22個:11%), 魚類(14個:7%)的, 糧食的(12個:6%). 家畜, 魚類,糧食等商品的大量流通有關珠江三角洲地區的經濟作物栽培和手工業生産. 所以這個地區的流通商品種類可以大別兩種, 就是經濟作物和手工業製品. 對于在珠江三角洲招來專業墟市的擴大的經濟作物之栽培, 分爲香木和花卉,菜蔬, 芋, 落花生,果樹,桑葉和養蠶業打算敍述. 淸初以來在廣州府東莞縣栽培了香木. 在東莞縣生産的香供給他省(主要江南)居民消費, 因此一部分東莞縣農民起家了. 在東莞縣, 淸末還旺盛地栽培了香木. 爲了供應廣州和佛山等城市居民的需要, 在城市近郊的番우縣·南海縣栽培花卉的農民흔多. 越來淸末越花卉的裁培發展, 以栽培花卉爲生業的農民增長了. 順德縣不是城市, 可是隨着居民的經濟的水平提高, 花卉需要增加了, 所以花卉的栽培發展了. 爲了供應廣州和佛山等城市居民的需要, 在城市近郊亦裁培了蔬菜. 主要栽培蔬菜的地區是南海縣, 番우縣. 在南海縣的場合, 蔬菜的生産和流通活躍了, 開設了9個賣買蔬菜的專業墟市. 就於芋和落花生言, 番우縣,南海縣的農民栽培了, 幷出수了. 珠江三角洲居民栽培了各種各樣的果樹, 特別려枝與龍眼是代表的水果. 爲了供應廣州和佛山等城市居民的需要, 在城市近郊主要栽培了果樹. 在番우縣的場合, 不僅開設了五個賣買水果的專業墟市. 而且番우縣的一部分農民棄了稻作, 改變稻田栽培了果樹. 其他順德縣陳村的龍眼, 南海縣려枝灣的莢枝, 東莞縣的烏欖, 增城縣的려枝等都是흔有名的. 特別在順德縣陳村水果的生産也發展了, 淸初以來開設了龍眼市, 又栽培果樹的技術出色, 隣近地方的人來學習了栽培技術, 還是購進了果樹苗. 在珠江三角洲生産的水果, 除了在廣東消費以外, 在別的地方亦消費了. 爲了販運別的地方, 商人加工了水果, 也包裝了水果. 由此, 除了以生産水果爲生業的農民以外, 水果商人(焙家),製造果箱的手工業者, 包裝水果的工人, 運輸工人等等都出現了. 招來廣東廣州府珠江三角洲的墟市發展是廣東人的經濟作物之栽培, 其中最重要的要素是栽培桑樹和養蠶業. 賣買桑葉和有關養蠶的商品的墟市占了在所有的專業墟市中的百分之四十一, 占了賣買經濟作物的專業墟市中的百分之七十六. 淸初以來在珠江三角洲地帶, 種植桑樹和養蠶業也發展了, 越來越更發展, 在鴉片戰爭前後時期南海縣的場合, 賣買桑葉的專業桑市已經存在10個. 在南海縣九江鄕桑樹充滿了田野, 因爲糧食不足, 外地米糧必要供應九江鄕的糧食需要. 由此, 1830年代在廣州出口生絲中的廣東産生絲的比重흔高了(37%-55%). 擴大桑樹種植上, 擔當重要的作用是兼養魚和種桑的`桑基魚塘`經營方式. 在農村內可能形成了男女勞動的效率分業, 到了淸末, 竝行種桑,養蠶,養魚,養豚四者的新方式出現了. 所以利用`桑基魚塘`農法的農民獲得了흔多的經濟收入. 在珠江三角洲一帶, 進一步推動了養蠶業和桑樹種植的事情是1870年代建設了近代的소絲廠的好景氣. 主要海外需要急增的情況, 刺激了中國全絲生産的發展, 由此廣東人摸索了又推進了소絲業的近代化. 在順德縣的場合, 到1911年建設了1142個工廠, 順德縣成爲了廣東소絲業的中心. 爲了供原料給近代的소絲廠, 養蠶業與桑樹種植又一次走了發展的道路. 這樣情況不止於養蠶業最發達的順德縣, 擴散了隣近的南海縣,番우縣,新會縣. 把在隣近地區生産的○子收集了, 然後運送了向順德縣. 當時但順德縣一個縣存在19個○市的事情充分證明了上述的情況. 連土質不適宜桑樹種植的東莞縣也積極地推進了養蠶業. 淸末在廣東廣州府一帶墟市的發展是由于專業墟市的大量出現的, 這樣的專業墟市的大量出現是在廣州府一帶擴散經濟作物之栽培的後果. 經濟作物之栽培的大幅度擴散是由于廣東地城的土質或者氣候適宜經濟作物之裁培的(自然的條件), 由于廣東和省外,海外的對經濟作物的需要存在的(社會的條件), 還有由于據自然的條件照應社會需要的廣東人的新農業經營技法(桑基魚塘)之開發和近代的工業技術之導入. 我認爲由于以上諸條件的複合的作用招來了經濟作物之栽培的大幅度擴散.

특집 전근대 동아시아 역사상의 사(士)(1) : 청대(淸代) 행상(行商)의 신상적(紳商的) 성격 -반씨가족(潘氏家族)의 사례를 중심으로

박기수 ( Kee Soo Park ) 성균관대학교 대동문화연구원 2012 大東文化硏究 Vol.80 No.-

종래 청대(淸代) 대외무역 특허상 행상(行商)에 대하여 그 경제적 측면에 대한 연구는 수없이 많았지만 그들이 신사(紳士)의 일원으로서 활동한 사회적 측면에 대해서는 거의 연구 가 없었다. 본고에서는 행상(行商)이 상인(商人)이면서 신사(紳士)라는 점에 착안하여 그들을 신상(紳商)의 한 부류로 파악하고 그러한 측면을 해명하고자 하였다. 모든 행상을 대상으로 하기 에 곤란하여 대표적 행상의 하나인 반씨가족(潘氏家族)에 한정하였다. 이들은 모두 과거(科擧)나 관직매매 (연납) (捐納)를 통해 신사 학위나 관함(官銜) (최고 종2품)을 지닌 신사의 일원이었다. 청 정부에 대한 기부 (연수) (捐輸)와 민간사회에 대한 기부나 공헌을 통하여 활발한 사회공익 활동을 하였다. 특히 서양인과의 잦은 접촉을 통하여 서양의 문물을 접할 기회가 많았고 이에 따라 근대적 지식과 인식을 수용함으로써 새로운 지식인의 유형 (신상) (紳商)을 형성하였다고 생각된다. In the past, there have been countless researches on economical aspects about the Hong merchants(행상(行商), hangshang) who monopolized foreign trade of the Qing period. However, there has been almost no research on the social aspect where they acted as a member of the gentry. This paper, based on the fact that the Hong merchants are the gentry at the same time being merchants, apprehended the Hong merchants as a kind of the gentry-merchant(신상(紳商), shenshang) who worked in the late Qing Dynasty and tried to explain their gentry-merchant characteristic. As it was difficult to have all the Hong merchants as subjects of analysis, this paper limited analysis to merchants with surname Pan who were one of the representatives of the Hong merchants. These are Zhencheng Pan(潘振承), Youdu Pan(반유도) (潘有度), and Zhengwei Pan(반정위) (潘正위) who managed Tongwenhang(동문행) (同文行), Tongfuhang(동부행) (同孚行), and Zhangyao Pan(반장요) (潘長耀), Zhengwei Pan(반정위) (潘正威), Shicheng Pan(반사성) (潘仕成) who were related to them by blood ties. They were all members of the gentry who obtained the status of gentry through Keju(과거) (科擧), the state examination to recruit ranking officials, or obtained official``s brevet rank(관함) (官銜) through traffic in government positions(연납) (捐納). They played an active part in common good of society by acts such as donating military expenditure or costs for flood control measures to the Qing government, aiding the poor, establishing education facilities and spreading vaccination. Moreover, they were active in individual scholastic culture activity. Through such points, one can satisfyingly find standard features of the gentry. However, they had many opportunities to learn Western culture through frequent contacts with Western merchants, and it is thought that they have formed new category of intellectual by accepting modernized knowledge and awareness. Especially in case of Shicheng Pan, he showed advanced feature such as imitating American warship to manufacture a warship, manufacturing gun powder and submarine mine following Western science technology. In this respect, their activity revealed a new side which could not be seen in China previously.