고려 말 조선 초 재정 구조의 연속성과 공납제 운영

소순규(So Soon-kyu) 역사비평사 2017 역사비평 Vol.- No.120

Studies referring to the founding of Joseon are dealing with the land system reform in a very important sense. In terms of the financial operation of the state, however, the effect of the land system reform was not significant. The reason why the national crisis did not occur even when it was not easy to secure rice was because the finance was being operated around the tribute at that time. The financial resources of the government offices responsible for various office a airs of the state were mostly based on tributes and rice secured by land tax was spent only on limited portions including bureaucrats’ stipends and royal costs, and the rest was reserved as military rice. Such financial structure seems to have been settled at least in the late Goryeo period and this structure continuously maintained after the founding of Joseon. After the reign of King Taejong, financial reforms were carried out to secure rice and military service resources. As a result, the tributary system was also restructured around tributes of each government office. However, the basic structure in which the national operating cost expenditure is provided through tributes was inherited. In short, the financial structure in the period before and after the founding of Joseon was that the aspect of continuity around tributes was accomplished more strongly than the partitionability represented by the land system reform.

조선초 대열의(大閱儀)의 의례 구조와 정치적 의미

소순규 ( Soon Kyu So ) 고려대학교 역사연구소 2012 사총 Vol.75 No.-

This study attempts to shed new light on the military rites of the Joseon dynasty, a topic which related studies have by and large avoided, by analyzing the royal military review ceremony conducted during early Joseon. The term daeyeol (大閱, military review) refers to a royal ceremony in which the Joseon king conducted a direct review of the military forces. This was regarded as a military training ceremony that fell under the category of the ``ritual ceremonies`` that made up the gunnye (軍禮, military rites) portion of the Orye (五禮, Five Rites), or national state rites during Joseon. The structure of the royal military review ceremony was designed to clearly highlight the fact that control over the military was the prerogative of the king and that the latter was also the main actor in such military reviews. The daeyeol (military review) was first implemented during the early reign of King Sejong. The importance of daeyrol was further emphasized during the period spanning from the reign of King Sejong to that of King Seongjeong. As such, the status of the daeyeolui (大閱儀, royal military review ceremony) was eventually upgraded to the point where it was included in the Oryeui (五禮儀, Five Rites) section of the <Sejong sillok (世宗實錄, Annals of King Sejong)>. Thereafter, military training methods underwent great changes before this particular ceremony was included in the <Gukjo oryeui (國朝五禮儀, Five Rites of State≫. The implementation of the royal military review ceremony served two purposes: while was to showcase the Icing`s supreme command over the military, the other was to rally the troops prior to a large-scale military operation. In this regard, the royal military review ceremony was implemented right before the onset of Jurchen conquest campaigns.

조선 세조대 공물 대납 공인(公認)의 정책적 맥락

소순규 ( So Soon-kyu ) 호남사학회 2018 역사학연구 Vol.72 No.-

This research aimed at investigating the process that partial permission for proxy payment of tribute, which began from King Sejong, became the full-scale permission during King Sejo, and determining the context of the policy of proxy payment of proxy in the process. Previous researches have treated proxy payment based on the correlation with Buddhism. However, according to the researcher’s investigation, proxy payment of tribute was conducted in two contexts, the aspect of settlement of the natural contradiction of tribute system and the aspect of support for Buddhist monks. The officers, who were negative about tribute during that time, criticized the whole tribute as an abnormal system or support for Buddhism, based on the situation where Buddhist monks intervened in proxy payment. Nevertheless, Sejong, Munjong, and Sejo fully perceived the purpose of permitting proxy payment and the situation which required proxy payment, when they responded to such criticism. Tribute proxy payment, firstly applied during Sejong, originally intended to settle the contradiction of tribute system itself. However, as Sejong became pro-Buddhism during his latter years, accordingly, as proxy payment right in Buddhism was extensively permitted, tribute proxy payment became deeply associated with the matter of Buddhism. The government officials strongly insisted on abolition of proxy payment during Munjong, after Sejong’s death, however since Munjong comprehended the political intention of proxy payment, he expressed a careful position on the abolition of it. Sejo was also in the same position as Munjong during his initial years, however he fully adopted proxy payment in his middle stages, all the more, implementing definitely different proxy payment policy. Sejo’s full-scale permission for proxy payment required several subordinate policies, such as calculation of proxy payment value, organization of proxy payment procedure, etc. Also, proxy payment policy also influenced revision of tribute system during the latter stages of Sejo’s reign, tribute of each Gun Hyeon was arranged(分定) as the existence of Buddhistic tribute. Nevertheless Sejo’s full-scale permission for proxy payment, Buddhist persons’ intervention in proxy payment was not prevented, and problems such as delay of tribute payment occurred. Accordingly, Sejo’s full-scale permission for proxy payment was eliminated along with enthronement of Yejong after Sejo.

고려시대 공호(貢戶)의 성격에 관한 고찰

소순규 ( So Soon-kyu ) 한국중세사학회 2025 한국중세사연구 Vol.- No.83

The existence called Gongho(貢戶) appeared in Goryeo society after the 12th century. The existing studies explained that these people who appeared in large quantities as the wanderers in the 12th century were registered in their family register based on their permanent domiciles and were understood as the objects for collecting taxes. And they have found that their status or the aspect of bearing taxation was not unlike men of intermediate status between commoners and base persons(白丁). The partial studies understood that ‘Gonghoje(System:貢戶制)’ which classified all the people for collecting taxes into Gongho was implemented. However, considering the characteristics of Gongho in the current materials, they have found to be the people who produced specific goods and offered tributes or provided labor for specific places as Jeongyeokho(定役戶) unlike general men of intermediate status between commoners and base persons. And they have found that they had somewhat lower status than general commoners’, that is, were in the range of Cheonsa·Cheonyeokyangin(賤事·賤役良人). As a lot of wanderers appeared and the dissolution of the area of Bugokje accelerated in the 12th century, the nation organized Gongho to produce specific goods. And they got to assimilate as the equivalent of specific Gukyeokbudamho of the existing area of Bugokje. They can be the pioneer of the Jeongyeokho class called Sinryangyeokcheon(身良役賤) after the Joseon Dynasty was founded.

여말선초 제주도 수취체제 정비과정과 특징

소순규 ( So Soon-kyu ) 한국중세사학회 2023 한국중세사연구 Vol.- No.73

This study aimed to examine the reorganization and characteristics of collection system in Jeju Island in the late Goryeo and the early Joseon Dynasty. Jeju Island was incorporated into the provinces of Goryeo from the Goryeo Dynasty, but it was difficult to establish a stable collection system during the Goryeo period due to the complicated politics thereafter, and the full-scale reorganizatuion of Jeju’s collection system began in earnest after the founding of the Joseon Dynasty. The agricultural environment in Jeju Island was poor due to the soil quality unsuitable for farming and the narrow cultivation area. Therefore, its family composition and residence type were also different from those on lands. In addition, transportation conditions were very poor due to the nature of an island. Jeju’s collection system was created based on these characteristics. Land tax or yeok was not paid to Seoul, but instead the burden was not large. On the contrary, tributes and presents paid to the central government accounted for most of the burden of taxation. The biggest burden of presents was horses, and seafood such as abalone and tangerines were also the major items. Besides, the maintenance and operation of these tax items reflected Jeju’s unique characteristics different from lands, including the organization of present units and the long-term continuation of governmental tribute production system.

조선전기 요역(徭役)의 종목 구분과 차정(差定) 방식에 대한 검토

소순규 ( So Soon Kyu ) 고려대학교 역사연구소 2019 사총 Vol.96 No.-

In this study, previous studies of the categorization and method of division of labor services owned to the nation (this type of labor services was termed ‘Yoyuk’) in the early Chosun Dynasty were reviewed and analyzed, and based on the findings, this study has made an argument. As for labor services owned to the nation in the early Chosun Dynasty, this study primarily focused on the review of a pervious study by Ari Tomonori(有井智德). In his study, Sogyungyoyuk (所耕徭役), Labor services owned to the nation were categorized into Sogyungyoyuk assigned arbitrarily and miscellaneous services (this type of labor services was termed ‘Japyuk’(雜役)), assigned in consideration of the no. of People(人丁), and the method of division of labor services owned to the nation was eclectic at first, considering both no. of population and land areas and then, changed to a relay method in which only arbitration decisions were considered. His study was followed by Korean researchers, and although his claim on such changes in the method of division of labor services owned to the nation was generally accepted, not the categorization. On the other hand, the author has found his claim for the categorization reasonable, but not the changes in the method of division. The miscellaneous labor services, categorized by Ari Tomonori(有井智德), could be expressed using a term ‘Hoyuk (戶役)’ and in this case, it would be possible to remove the ground for an argument for his research. In addition, if labor services owned to the nation were made in the dualistic fashion: Sogyungyoyuk and Hoyuk, the division of labor services owned to the nation should have been made in the dualistic fashion as well. Therefore, it would be reasonable to believe that the division of labor services was made through two methods: an eclectic method and a relay method. One of critical topics in the research of division of labor services owned to the nation is Hodeungjae(戶等制) and in fact, it was also operated in the dualistic manner and Yeokminsik(役民式)’ introduced in the reign of King Sung-Jong was also closely related with Hodeungjae(戶等制).

조선전기 座目의 운영과 당상관 인사 관행

소순규 ( So Soon-kyu ) 조선시대사학회 2020 조선시대사학보 Vol.94 No.0

Jwamok (座目 or 坐目) during the Joseon Dynasty was used as a list of or a roll book people who will be participated in events such as the official events of the state, meetings in government offices, and town meetings. The entry order of Jwamok meant the grade of the members, and the order was set according to specific criteria such as official position, status, and age. However, it seems that Jwamok was used in this general meaning since the late Joseon Dynasty, and it was used as a different example during the early Joseon. Jwamok in the Joseon Dynasty was a list recorded rank of Dangsanggwan(堂上官) in the royal court. Jwamok seems to have been maintained right after the enthronement of King Sejong, and gradually the subject of entry has been settled the rank of Dangsanggwan and over in the process of expanding the standard of Dangsanggwan into Jeong-Ilpum. Jwa-mok was used as a very important reference in the personnel administration for the affiliates of Dangsanggwan, which is not applied to Sunjabop, and sometimes, it conflicted with the bureaucracy system or King’s personnel right. In this study, it intends to examine the operation method of Jwamok, and the one side of HR practice of the Dangsanggwan in the early Joseon Dynasty through this.

조선 태종대 저화 발행 배경에 대한 재검토 - ‘화폐정책’이 아닌 ‘재정정책’의 맥락에서

소순규(So, Soon-kyu) 호서사학회 2019 역사와 담론 Vol.0 No.92

조선 전기 발행된 楮貨는 그간 많은 연구자의 주목을 받은 주제였다. 조선 태종대 국가의 주도로 저화란 화폐가 발행되었으나, 사회경제적 여건의 미숙으로 민간에 정착하지 못하고 실패에 이르렀다는 것이 그동안의 견해였다. 저화의 시도 및 실패는 조선 전기 상품 화폐경제 발전의 정도를 보여주는 것으로 평가되었으며, 이후 조선 후기에 이르러 상품 화폐 경제의 발전이 심화됨에 따라 동전, 즉, 화폐사용이 보다 광범위하게 이루어지게 되는 역사적 귀결의 前史로 자리매김하게 되었다. 그러나 당대 사료에서 나타난 저화는 화폐 도입이란 목적보다는 재정 문제 해결을 위한 재정정책으로서의 성격을 지니고 있었다. 두 차례 도입된 저화는 모두 국가의 미곡 부족 문제를 해결하기 위한 것이었다. 특히 태종 10년대부터 본격화된 2차 저화 발행의 경우, 상당한 재정적 성과를 낳기도 하였다. 이 과정에서 국가는 저화가 화폐로서 민간에 활발히 유통되는 것을 경계하는 모습을 보이기도 하였다. 요컨대 당시의 저화 발행은 화폐 정책으로서가 아니라 재정 정책으로 접근해야만 정책의 의도와 과정, 결과를 당대의 입장에서 읽어낼 수 있다. 더하여 당시 발행된 저화의 액면가 역시 두 차례 저화 발행의 목적에 따라 달리 설정되었다. 녹봉 때 나누어주는 紬布를 대체하기 위한 저화는 2종의 가치로 발행되었고, 가치 기준은 포(布)였다. 반면 미곡과 저화의 직접 교역을 통해 국가의 미곡 확보를 꾀했던 2차 발행당시에는 저화 1장의 가치를 미 1斗로 고정하여 저화와 쌀의 교환을 용이하도록 하였다. 본고는 이러한 내용을 토대로 조선전기 저화 발행의 배경을 다시 검토하고, 제도 운영의 과정과 결과까지 아울러 재검토해 보고자 한다. The Jeohwa (paper-note) issued in the early Joseon Dynasty have been an interesting subject to the researchers. It has been a opinion that the paper-note called ‘Jeohwa’ was issued led by King Taejong of Joseon Dynasty but it had failed to settle down among people due to inexperienced socioeconomic conditions. Attempts and failures of Jeohwa were evaluated as showing the degree of development of commodity-money Economy in the early Joseon Dynasty. As reached the late Joseon Dynasty later, the development of the commodity-money economy deepened, it became a historical consequence of the wider use of coins, that is currency. However, Jeohwa from the historical records of the days had a purpose as monetary policy rather than the purpose of introducing money. The two-time introduction of Jeohwa was both aimed at resolving the country"s shortage of rice. In particular, the second Jeohwa issue, which began in earnest from the 10th year of King Taejong, produced considerable financial results. In the process, the country was also wary of the active circulation of Jeohwa in the private sector as currency. In short, the issue of Jeohwa at the time should be approached as a financial policy, not as a monetary policy, so that it can be read its intention, process and outcome of the policy in the perspective of the time. In addition, the face value of Jeohwa issued at that time was also set twice differently for the purpose of issuing it. To replace the silk distributed on the stipend day, Jeohwa was issued with two kinds of values, and the value unit was ‘Po(布)’. On the other hand, at the time of the second issue, when it was intended to secure the rice of the country through direct trade between rice and Jeohwa, the value of one Jeohwa was fixed at 1 ‘du(斗)’ to be easy to exchange with rice. Based on these fundings, this article is to reexamine the background of the issue of Jeohwa (paper-note) and review the process and results of the system operation.

여말선초 전제개혁의 역사적 성격에 대한 재검토 - ‘사전개혁’ 에 대한 비판적 관점에서 -

소순규(So, Soon-Kyu) 한국사연구회 2020 한국사연구 Vol.- No.190

조선 초기 경제사 연구와 그 역사상에 대한 비판적 검토

소순규(So Soon-kyu) 역사비평사 2023 역사비평 Vol.- No.145