명청시대사 연구의 동향과 전망

曺永憲(Cho Young-hun) 역사학회 2008 역사학보 Vol.0 No.199

고등학교 『동아시아사』의 예수회 관련 서술 분석과 제언 -2011년과 2015년 교육과정본의 비교를 중심으로-

조영헌 ( Cho Young-hun ) 역사교육학회 2019 역사교육논집 Vol.70 No.-

This paper analyzed the description of the Jesuits in the East Asian History(EAH) textbooks; specifically, compared the previous three types of EAH textbooks that were published in 2014(hereafter referred to as ‘2011 EAH’) with the new four types of EAH textbooks, which were recently published in 2018(hereafter referred to as ‘2015 EAH’) under the 2015 revised curriculum. Through a comparative analysis, this study found out that there has been a shift of emphasis from ‘east-west intercourse’ to ‘trade network expansion’ when the descriptions of chapter 4 in 2011 EAH is compared to the descriptions of chapter 3 in 2015 EAH. As a results, the overall descriptions of the Jesuits on its cultural intercourse has dispersed into different units within the chapter, which has weaken the coherence on unit title and its content descriptions. The remarkable features of the content descriptions may summarized as following two points. First, both descriptions in 2011 EAH and 2015 EAH mainly focused on European science and its technologies(sundial, calender, prism, alarm clock, gun powder etc) that the Jesuits brought to East Asia. Such descriptions are causing the risk of delivering a fixed image of Jesuits simply as ‘spreader of science and technology’. Therefore, the textbook must clarify the discordance between the purpose and the result of the Jesuits advance to East Asia. Second, EAH textbook thoroughly emphasis how Joseon reacted differently to the Jesuits compare to China and Japan, since Joseon had indirect intercourse through Joseon missions to Imperial China(燕行使) and Western learning(西學), whereas China and Japan had direct intercourse with the Jesuits. However, both 2011 EAH and 2015 EAH textbooks missed out mentioning the reasons why Joseon kept indirect intercourse with the Jesuits. Also, the Jesuits was a mediator of east-west cultural encounter, who did not just spread their culture in one way from west to east, but rather in both ways. Thus, the characteristics of reciprocality of the Jesuits may be highlighted as an important material in global history, and such point was newly found in 2015 EAH compare to 2011 EAH. EAH is supposed to bridge Korean History with World History and the Jesuits is suitable material for it. Such topic not only shows a distinctive characteristic of Korea among other countries in East Asia, but also demonstrates the reciprocality of east-west cultural encounter. Overall, the perspective of global history can be emphasized as an alternative to euro-centrism and modern-centrism, and the Jesuits is especially worthy of noticed in the history class.

후기 중화제국(中華帝國) 해양사(海洋史) 연구의 최근 흐름과 글로벌 히스토리 -중등 역사 교과서에 대한 제언-

조영헌 ( Cho Young-hun ) 고려대학교 민족문화연구원 2017 민족문화연구 Vol.77 No.-

This article mainly deals with recent trend and new perspectives of maritime history in late imperial China and suggests how we can apply these trend and new perspectives in history textbooks of high school, especially < World History > and < East Asian History >. Why does maritime history in late imperial China receive the worldwide attention recently? There are two big backgrounds. From the practical and political perspectives, this trend is related with both the coincidence that the year of 2005 is the 600 years anniversary of Zhenghe expedition and the powerful endeavor of Chinese government to be a maritime powers. And, from the historical academic perspectives, this is very closely related with important issues such as the reaction against euro-centrism, how to interpretate the maritime ban policy after Zhenghe expedition, ‘early modern’ controvercy, and global history.

“대운하시대(大運河時代)”(1415-1784), 중국의 상업(商業)과 변경(邊境) 정책

조영헌 ( Young Hun Cho ) 고려대학교 역사연구소 2014 사총 Vol.81 No.-

This paper attempts to re-evaluate the Chinese economy during the 15th to 18th centuries, a part of Europe`s ‘the Age of Maritime Expansion’ through the lens of materials circulation. In order to do so, this paper presents an analytic framework for the 370 years between 1415 and 1784 as ‘the Age of the Grand Canal’. This period has two distinct characteristics. First, the ‘Age of Grand Canal’ refers to the period, when the domestic grain tribute transportation system for capital became unified into the Grand Canal that connects Beijing in the North to the lower Yangze Delta(Jiangnan) in the South. This means that the domestic grain tribute transportation system restricted maritime transport. Second, for the international transportation system, the maritime ban policy and the tributary system established the basis for state control in limiting foreign trade. In other words, the official foreign trade of the states was not so active, whereas other limited forms of trade, such as private trade and smuggling trade, were actively practiced during this time period. During this age, the sea power of China was relatively weak because of the effective repression of the state-led or state-sponsored marine expansion. However, even without an increase in the state`s sea power, China fulfilled its role as the leading ‘market’ or ‘factory’ of world economy until the late 18th century. Also, all the desire for trade and profit was satisfied through the Grand Canal, the domestic transport network. The characteristics of materials circulation during this age were formed through the interaction of two dynamics: tension and conflict, illustrating the negotiation between the state that pursued security as its top priority and the merchants who sought profit as their main concern. A concern for security was strongly involved in the foreign trade and commercial activities in both the Northwest borders and the Southeast coast regions. In the 19th century, the negotiation between the state`s security and the merchants` profits from this age underwent a decline in their effectiveness. The advantages of the Grand Canal as an artificial waterway had reached its limits and resulted in a transformation from the canal economy to the coastal economy. The situation was such that the negotiation between the state`s security and the merchants` profits from the ‘Age of Grand Canal’, which functioned effectively up to the mid-18th century, failed to adjust to the changes of the 19th century. In other words, the paradox of ‘technological lock-in’, i.e., the shift from strength to weakness over time, arose between the late-18th century and the early 19th century. Thus 370 years from 1415 to 1784 in China may not be simply seen as the period of a lack of commitment to maritime expansion, but rather a counterpart of ‘the Age of Maritime Expansion’, which is designated ‘the Age of Grand Canal’.

명 , 청 교체와 양주 염상 - 청초 “ 휼상 (恤商) 유과 (裕課) ” 정책의 성격과 관련하여 -

조영헌(Young Hun Cho) 한국중국학회 2001 중국학보 Vol.43 No.-

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서평 : 『 명청시기 태호유역적 상품경제 여시장 망락 』( 조영현 명청사연구 2002 )

조영헌(Young Hun Cho) 명청사학회 2002 명청사연구 Vol.16 No.1

N/A

<명청사학회 제11회 하계연구토론회> - 명청시대 동아시아 도시사회의 제문제 : 명,청시대 신현설치오 시진사회 - 강남지역을 중심으로 -

조영헌 ( Young Hun Cho ) 명청사학회 2002 명청사연구 Vol.17 No.1

本稿選擇了江南地區的`新縣設置`(=`設縣`)事例, 集中探討了設縣與市鎭社會變化的關系。 選擇的對象就是江南地區的7府(江蘇省的鎭江府 · 常州府 · 蘇州府 · 松江府, 浙江省的湖州府 · 嘉興府 · 杭州府), 可是主要以在設縣的同時成爲縣治的5個市鎭(魏塘鎭, 當湖鎭, 鳳鳴市, 唐行鎭, 朱涇鎭)爲限進行分析了。其結果明白了第三個方面的事實。 第一, 在明 · 淸期間江南的分設新縣的21個當中, 5個縣的縣治就是本來從市鎭來發展的城市(全體的百分之二十四)。 其中4個事例是在明朝發生的, 全體比率上設縣更多的淸朝反而不如明朝那??多。 第二, 明淸兩代在起案和決定設縣的過程中, 最重要的決定因素就是國家權力的地方行政能力卽圓滑地執行稅粮徵收和訴訟爲理的需要。 具體來看, 明代設縣的主導因素是地域的社會經濟的變化和居民的利害關系, 可是淸代的主導因素是國家(淸朝)權力的利害關系的。 第三, 一旦成爲縣治的市鎭內建立了縣署 · 縣學 · 祠廟等縣治的基本施設, 特別倭寇侵略??害的嘉靖年間實現了大規模築城。 其過程當中該當居民經常容易受到勞役 · 財政的負擔。 盡管如此築城以後的治安狀況比以前向上了, 尤其是對于居民來說訴訟和納稅方便多了, 而且通過縣學建立擴充了紳士層增加的基盤。

대륙 문명과 해양 문명의 접점 베이징과 접선 대운하

曺永憲 ( Cho Young-hun ) 명청사학회 2022 명청사연구 Vol.- No.58

This article identifies Beijing, the capital city of late Imperial China for about 800 years, as the junctional point of the two spatial civilizations, the continent and the maritime, and attempts to re-examine the Grand Canal, the transportation route of Beijing, as the connecting line to the continent and the maritime civilization. As for the time frame, the Yuan-Ming-Qing dynasties, in which Beijing performs the function of the Capital of whole area and the dynamics of the Grand Canal are remarkably expressed, were used as the basic analysis period. In this article, I tried to modify the existing view that Beijing was regarded as a city of continental civilization. Until now, many scholars have not paid much attention to the fact that Beijing was not a self-sufficient city, that is, Beijing was a city that could not survive unless it was linked to the Grand Canal. However, since Beijing was created and maintained by connecting with the Grand Canal, which is based on “connectivity,” the vitality of ocean continued to be added to the continental city of Beijing. The Grand Canal played not only the integration between the north and south China, but also the role of a connecting line connecting the maritime civilization through the Jiangnan route connecting Hangzhou and Suzhou, Ningpo route connecting Zhedong Canal and Zoushan islands, and Tianjin route connecting the Gulp of Pohai. The Grand Canal has made Beijing, which was born on the basis of continental civilization, the junctional point between continental and maritime civilization. After all, Beijing can be described as follows in the history of civilization. “Beijing is a port. It is a port that leads to pasture and continents and connects to the sea through the Grand Canal.”

명말(明末),청초(淸初) 선당(善堂),선회(善會)와 휘주상인(徽州商人) -회(淮),양지역(揚地域) 운하도시(運河都市)를 중심으로-

조영헌 ( Young Hun Cho ) 중국사학회 2007 중국사연구 Vol.47 No.-

‘17세기 위기론’과 중국의 사회 변화

조영헌(Cho, Young Hun) 역사비평사 2014 역사비평 Vol.- No.107

If the 17th century crisis is relevant to the fall of the Ming, then the progression of the crisis can be seen as the flash point for the Ming"s destruction. What factors led to the collapse of the Ming dynasty? The reasons are many and varied; the emperor"s lack of competence, bureaucratic corruption and factionalism, peasants" revolt, invasion of foreign forces, spread of infectious disease, lack of an influx of silver, abnormal climate change. This paper examines the 17th century crisis from a global perspective. In particular, it focuses on two factors, the lack of silver and abnormal climate change, and recent research on these is analyzed. This paper confirms that both factors were important at the beginning of the 17th century; between the late 1630s and early 1640s, they operated simultaneously and intensively, and exacerbated the many existing unstable situations. This finally led to a tipping point that led to the fall of the Ming dynasty. Clearly, although many other factors beyond climate change can be included in the narrative of Ming dynasty collapse, change in the silver trade from the global historical perspective, for example, is also a critical issue. As long as global history avoids climate determinism, global history requires a broader view of nature, humans, and their coexistence and cooperative dynamics. Therefore, global historical perspective and its research methods require further development.